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in9  • 

Division Jl^  . .  I  \^.  fr^ 

Section .V..K..7& ... 


Numlirr 


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{t^M 


11 1  S  T  O  li  Y 

OK    THE 

J{,EVOLUTIONS  II  EUROPE, 

FROM 

THE    SUBVERSION 

OK    THR 

ROMAN   EMPIRE  IN  THE   WEST, 

TO    THE 

CONGRESS  OF  VIENNA. 

FROM    THE 

FRENCH  OF  CHRISTOPHER  WILLI AIVTkOCH. 

WITH    A 

CONTINUATION   TO   THE  YEAR    1815, 

BY   M.    SCHCELL. 

REVISED   AND   CORRECTED  BV  J.   G.   COGSWELL. 
WITH    A 

SKETCH  OF  THE  LATE  REVOLUTIONS  IN  FRANCE, 
BELGIUM,  POLAND  AND  GREECE, 

BY   J.   BARRETT,  M.  D. 

Blmbelllslied    w^ltliEngi-avlngs, 

IN    TWO    VOLUMES. 

VOL.    II. 

HARTFORD : 

PUBLISHED    BY    EDWIN    HUNT, 

1847. 


CONTENTS  OF   VOLUME  11. 


Pftgo 

Chapter  VIII.— Period  VII. 

From  the  Peace  of  Westphalia  to  that  of  Utrecht,  A.  D. 

1648—1713, M 

Chapter  IX.— Period  VIII. 

From  the  Peace  of  Utrecht  to  the  French  Revolution,  A.  D. 

.713—1789, 57 

Chapter  X. — Period  IX. 

From  the  commencement  of  the  French  Revolution,  to  the 

downfall  of  Buonaparte,  A.  D.  1789—1815,      ....     140 

Chapter  XI. 

The  Military  Predominance  of  France,  under  the  sway  of 

Napoleon  Buonaparte,  A.  D.  1802—1810, 198 

Chapter  XII. 

The  Decline  and  Downfall  of  the  Empire  of  Buonaparte, 

A.  D.  1810—1816, 258 

Appendix. 

From  the  second  Restoration  of  the  Bourbons,  A.  D  1815, 

to  the  French  Revolution  in  July,  1830, 303 

Revolution  in  Belgium,  A.  D.  1830, 328 

Revolution  in  Poland,  A.  D.  1830, 329 

Revolution  in  Greece,  A.  D.  1821—1827, 341 

War  between  Russia  and  Turkey,  A.  D.  1828  and  1829,      .  361 
England,  from  A.  D.  1816,  till  the  passing  of  the  Reform 

Bill  in  1832, 365 

Notes, •    .    377 


*  CHAPTER  Vm. 

principally  by  the  two  great  statesmen,  Cardinals  Richelieu  and 
Mazarin,  who,  by  drying  up  the  fountains  of  civil  dissensions, 
and  concentrating  the  reins  of  authority  in  the  hands  of  the  go- 
vernment, raised  that  monarchy  to  the  rank  which  its  position, 
its  population,  and  its  internal  resources,  had  assigned  it  among 
the  powers  of  the  Continent. 

Mazarin  left  the  kingdom  in  a  flourishing  state  to  Louis  XIV., 
who,  aided  by  the  counsels  and  assistance  of  the  famous  Col- 
bert, became  the  patron  of  letters  and  the  fine  arts,  and  finished 
the  work  which  was  begun  by  his  prime  minister.  Nothing 
could  equal  the  ardour  which  inspired  that  prince  for  military 
fame.  France  would  have  been  prosperous  under  his  reign, 
and  respected  even  by  all  Europe,  had  he  kept  nothing  else  in 
view  than  the  true  interests  and  happiness  of  his  people  ;  but 
he  was  ambitious  of  that  sort  of  glory  which  is  the  scourge  of 
mankind,  the  glory  of  heroes  and  conquerors.  Hence  there  re- 
sulted a  long  series  of  wars,  which  exhausted  the  strength  and 
resources  of  the  state,  and  introduced  a  new  change  in  its  po- 
litical system.  The  same  States  which  had  formerly  made 
common  cause  with  France  against  Austria,  now  combined 
against  the  former,  to  humble  that  gigantic  power  which  seemed 
to  threaten  their  liberty  and  independence. 

[In  these  alliances  the  maritime  powers  voluntarily  took  part ; 
and,  having  less  fear  than  the  others  of  falling  under  the  yoke 
of  a  universal  monarchy,  they  joined  the  Confederates  merely 
for  the  protection  of  their  commerce — the  true  source  of  their 
influence  and  their  wealth.  They  undertook  the  defence  of  the 
equilibrium  system,  because  they  perceived,  that  a  State  which 
could  command  the  greater  part  of  the  continental  coasts,  might 
in  many  ways  embarrass  their  commerce,  and  perhaps  become 
dangerous  to  their  marine.  They  soon  acquired  a  very  great 
influence  in  the  affairs  of  this  system,  by  the  subsidies  with 
which  from  time  to  time  they  furnished  the  States  of  the  Con- 
tinent. From  this  period  the  principal  aim  of  European  policy 
was  their  finances  and  their  commercial  interests,  in  place  ot 
religion,  which  had  been  the  grand  motive  or  pretext  for  the 
preceding  wars.  With  this  new  system  began  those  abuses  oi 
commercial  privileges  and  monopolies,  prohibitions,  imposts, 
and  many  other  regulations,  which  acted  as  restraints  on  natural 
liberty,  and  became  the  scourge  of  future  generations.  It  was 
then  that  treaties  of  commerce  first  appeared,  by  which  every 
trading  nation  endeavoured  to  procure  advantages  to  itself,  at 
the  expense  of  its  rivals ;  and  it  was  then  that  the  belligerent 
powers  began  to  lay  restraints  and  interdicts  on  the  commerce 
of  neutral  States. 


PERIOD  VH.     A.  H.  164S — 1713.  6 

But  the  political  system  of  Europe  experienced  other  changfes 
at  this  period.  Standing  annies  were  introduced,  and  augment- 
ed to  a  degree  that  proved  ruinous  both  to  the  agriculture  of  the 
inhabitants,  and  the  finances  of  the  government,  which,  by  this 
means,  was  rendered  more  and  more  dependent  on  those  States, 
whose  principal  object  was  commerce.  The  frequent  commu- 
nication between  foreign  courts,  which  the  policy  of  Richelieu 
had  rendered  necessary,  gave  occasion  for  envoys  and  resident 
ministers  ;  whereas  formerly  scarcely  any  other  intercourse  was 
known,  except  by  extraordinary  embassies.] 

The  first  war  that  roused  the  European  powers,  was  that 
which  Louis  XIV.  undertook  against  Spain,  to  enforce  the 
claims  which  he  advanced,  in  name  of  his  Queen  Maria  The- 
resa, over  several  provinces  of  the  Spanish  Netherlands,  espe- 
cially the  dutchies  of  Brabant  and  Limburg,  the  seigniories  of 
Mechlin,  the  marquisate  of  Antwerp,  Upper  Gueldres,  the 
counties  of  Namur,  Hainault  and  Artois,  Cambray  and  Cam- 
bresis,  which  he  alleged  belonged  to  him,  in  virtue  of  the  jus 
devolutionis,  according  to  the  usage  of  that  country.  According 
to  that  right,  the  property  of  goods  passed  to  the  children  of  the 
first  marriage,  when  their  parents  contracted  another.  Maria 
Theresa,  Queen  of  France,  was  the  daughter,  by  the  first  mar- 
riage of  Philip  IV.  King  of  Spain;  whereas  Charles  II.,  his 
successor  in  that  monarchy,  was  descended  of  the  second  mar- 
riage. Louis  XIV.  contended,  that  from  the  moment  of  Philip's 
second  marriage,  the  property  of  all  the  countries,  which  were 
affected  by  the  right  of  devolution,  belonged  to  his  Queen  ;  and 
that,  after  the  death  of  her  father,  that  Princess  should  enjoy 
the  succession.  In  opposition  to  these  claims  of  France,  the 
Spaniards  alleged,  that  the  right  of  aevolution,  being  founded 
merely  on  custom,  and  applicable  only  to  particular  successions, 
could  not  be  opposed  to  the  fundamental  laws  of  Spain,  which 
maintained  the  indivisibility  of  that  monarchy,  and  transferred  the 
whole  succession  to  Charles  II.  without  any  partition  whatever. 

In  course  of  the  campaign  of  1667,  the  French  made  them- 
selves masters  of  several  cities  in  the  Low  Countries,  such  as 
Bruges,  Furnes,  Armentieres,  Charleroi,  Binch,  Ath,  Tournay, 
Douay,  Courtray,  Oudenarde,  and  Lille  ;  and  in  course  of  the 
following  winter,  they  got  possession  of  Franche-Comte.  The 
Pope  and  several  princes  having  volunteered  their  good  offices 
for  the  restoration  of  peace,  they  proposed  a  congress  at  Aix-la- 
Chapelle  ;  but  the  principal  scene  of  the  negotiation  was  at  the 
Hague,  where  Louis  sent  the  Count  d'Estrades,  to  treat  sepa- 
rately with  the  States-General.  This  negotiation  was  greatly 
accelerated  by  the  famous  Triple  Alliance,  concluded  at  the 

1  * 


8  CHAPTER  VUL 

Hague  1668,  between  Great  Britain,  Sweden,  and  the  States- 
General.  By  the  terms  of  this  treaty,  the  Allied  Powers  re- 
quired Louis  to  offer  Spain  the  option,  either  to  leave  him  in 
possession  of  the  places  which  he  had  conquered,  during  the 
campaign  of  1667,  or  to  cede  to  him  either  the  dutchy  of  Lux- 
emburg, or  Franche-Comte  with  the  cities  of  Cambray,  Douay 
Aire,  St.  Omer,  and  Furnes,  with  their  dependencies.  The 
Spaniards  having  accepted  the  former  of  these  alternatives,  the 
draught  of  a  treaty  of  peace  was  agreed  on,  and  signed  by  the 
ministers  of  France,  England,  and  the  States-General ;  and  this 
scheme  served  as  the  basis  of  the  treaty,  which  was  concluded 
at  Aix-la-Chapelle,  between  France  and  Spain  (May  2d  1668.) 
In  consideration  of  the  restitutions  which  she  had  made  to  Spain, 
France  retained,  in  terms  of  this  treaty,  the  towns  of  Charleroi, 
Binch,  Ath,  Douay,  Tournay,  Oudenarde,  Lille,  Armentieres, 
Courtray,  Bergues,  and  Furnes,  with  their  bailiwicks  and  de- 
pendencies. 

This  peace  was  soon  followed  by  a  new  war,  which  Louis 
XIV.  undertook  against  the  Republic  of  the  Seven  United  Pro- 
vinces. Wishing  to  be  avenged  on  the  Dutch,  whom  he  knew 
to  be  the  principal  authors  of  the  Triple  Alliance,  and  consult- 
ing only  his  own  propensity  for  war,  he  alleged,  as  a  pretext, 
certain  insulting  medals  which  had  been  struck  in  Holland,  on 
the  peace  of  Aix-la-Chapelle,  and  the  Triple  Alliance.^  In  vain 
did  the  States-General  offer  him  every  satisfaction  ;  he  persist- 
ed in  his  purpose  of  declaring  war ;  and  the  better  to  succeed  in 
his  design,  he  endeavoured  first  to  dissolve  the  Triple  Alliance. 
Colbert  de  Croissy,  whom  he  sent  to  England,  found  means  to 
detach  Charles  II.  from  the  alliance,  and  to  draw  him  over  to 
side  with  Louis  against  the  Republic.  The  same  success  at- 
tended the  negotiation  which  he  set  on  foot  with  the  Court  of 
Stockholm.  Following  the  example  of  England,  the  Swedes 
renounced  the  Triple  Alliance,  and  joined  with  France.  Seve- 
ral princes  of  the  Empire,  such  as  the  Elector  of  Cologne  and 
the  Bishop  of  Munster,  adopted  the  same  line  of  conduct.  The 
war  broke  out  in  1672 ;  and  so  rapid  were  the  conquests  of 
Louis,  that  he  subdued  in  one  single  campaign  the  provinces  of 
Gueldres,  Utrecht,  Overyssel,  and  part  of  Holland.  He  would 
have  carried  the  city  of  Amsterdam,  if  the  Dutch  had  not  cut 
their  dikes  and  inundated  the  country. 

Alarmed  at  these  extraordinary  successes,  and  apprehending 
the  entire  subversion  of  the  Republic,  the  Emperor  Leopold  I. 
the  King  of  Spain,  the  Elector  of  Brandenburg,  and  the  Impe- 
rial States,  leagued  in  their  favour,  and  marched  to  their  relief. 
The  Parliament  of  England  obliged  Charles  II.  to  make  peace 


PERIOD  vn.     A.  D.  1648 — 1713.  7 

'xiih  the  Republic,  by  refusing  to  grant  him  supplies  (1674.) 
The  Elector  of  Cologne  and  the  Bishop  of  Munster  did  the 
aame  thing.  Louis  XIV.  then  thought  proper  to  abandon  his 
•conquests  in  Holland  ;  and  directed  his  principal  strength  against 
Spain  and  the  Germanic  Stages.  He  subdued  Franche-Comte 
in  the  spring  of  1674 ;  and  in  course  of  the  same  year,  the 
Prince  of  Conde  gained  the  battle  of  Senef.  In  the  following 
winter  Turenne  attacked  the  quarters  of  the  Imperialists  in 
Alsace,  and  chased  them  from  that  province,  in  spite  of  their 
superior  numbers.  That  great  general  was  slain  at  Saspach  in 
Ortenau  when  he  was  on  the  point  of  fighting  the  famous  battle 
with  Montecuculi  (11th  Aug.  1674.)  Next  year  Admiral  du 
Quesne  gained  two  naval  victories,  near  the  islands  of  Lipari 
and  Messina,  over  De  Ruyter,  who  died  of  the  wounds  he  had 
received. 

The  Swedes,  according  to  the  secret  articles  of  their  alliance 
with  France,  had  penetrated,  in  the  month  of  December  1674, 
mio  the  Electorate  of  Brandenburg,  to  cause  a  diversion  against 
the  Elector  Frederic  William,  who  commanded  the  Imperial 
army  on  the  Rhine  ;  but  the  Elector  surprised  them  by  forced 
marches  at  Rathenow,  and  completely  routed  their  army  near 
Fehrbellin  (1675.)  The  Emperor  then  declared  war  against 
Sweden  ;  and  the  Elector,  in  concert  with  the  princes  of  Bruns- 
wick, the  Bishop  of  Munster,  and  the  King  of  Denmark,  strip- 
ped the  Swedes  of  the  greater  part  of  their  possessions  in  the 
Empire. 

At  length,  in  the  years  1678-79,  a  peace  was  concluded  at 
INimeguen,  under  the  mediation  of  England.  Louis  XIV.  con- 
trived to  divide  the  allies,  and  to  make  a  separate  treaty  with 
the  Dutch,  by  which  he  restored  to  them  the  city  of  Maestricht, 
which  he  had  again  seized.  The  example  of  the  Dutch  was  fol- 
lowed bv  the  Spaniards,  who  in  like  manner  signed  a  special 
treaty  with  France ;  in  virtue  of  which,  they  gave  up  to  her 
Franche-Comte,  with  several  cities  in  Flanders  and  Hainault, 
such  as  Valenciennes,  Bouchain,  Conde,  Cambray,  Aire,  St. 
Omer,  Ypres,  Warwick,  Warneton,  Poperingen,  Bailleul,  Cas- 
sel,  Bavay,  and  Maubeuge,  with  their  dependencies.  The  peace 
of  Munster  ( 1648)  was  renewed  by  that  which  was  concluded 
at  Nimeguen,  between  France,  the  Empire,  and  the  Emperor. 
France,  on  renouncing  her  right  to  a  garrison  in  Philipsburg, 
got  possession  of  the  city  of  Friburg  in  Brisgaw,  but  refused  to 
restore  what  she  had  wrested  from  the  Duke  of  Lorraine,  except 
on  conditions  so  burdensome,  that  the  Duke  would  not  accept 
them  and  preferred  to  abandon  the  repossession  of  his  dutchy. 
As  to  the  peace  which  France  and  Sweden  had  negotiated  witK 


8  CHAPTER  Vlll. 

Denmark  and  her  allies  the  Princes  of  the  Empire,  it  was  re- 
newed by  different  special  treaties,  concluded  in  course  of  the 
year  1679. 

No  sooner  was  the  peace  of  Nimeguen  concluded,  than  there 
sprung'  up  new  troubles,  known  by  the  name  of  the  Troubles  of 
the  Reunions.  Louis  XIV.,  whose  ambition  was  without  bounds, 
had  instituted  a  Chamber  of  Reunion,  in  the  parliament  of  Metz, 
for  the  purpose  of  examining  the  nature  and  extent  of  the  terri- 
tories ceded  to  him  by  the  treaties  of  Westphalia,  the  Pyrenees, 
Aix-ia-Chapelle,  and  Nimeguen.  This  Chamber,  as  well  as  the 
Parliament  of  Besan9on,  and  the  Sovereign  Council  of  Alsace, 
adjudged  to  the  King,  by  their  decree,  several  towns  and  seignio- 
ries, as  being  fiefs  or  dependencies  of  Alsace ;  as  also  the  three 
bishoprics,  Franche-Comte,  and  the  territories  which  had  been 
ceded  to  him  in  the  Netherlands. 

The  King's  views  were  principally  directed  to  Alsace.  He 
had  already  tendered  his  claims  on  this  province,  shortly  after 
the  peace  of  the  Pyrenees,  when  the  matter  had  been  referred 
to  the  decision  of  arbiters  chosen  by  the  Emperor  himself.  The 
work  of  arbitration  was  not  far  advanced,  when  it  was  inter- 
rupted by  the  Dutch  war,  in  which  the  Emperor  and  the  Em- 
pire were  both  implicated.  The  peace  of  Nimeguen  having 
confirmed  the  treaty  of  Munster,  he  preferred  the  method  of  re- 
union  to  that  of  arbitration,  for  reclaiming  his  alleged  rights. 
Taking  advantage  of  the  general  terms  in  which  the  cession  of 
Alsace  was  announced  in  the  seventy-third  and  seventy-fourth 
articles  of  the  said  treaty,  he  claimed  the  absolute  sovereignty 
of  the  whole  province,  and  obliged  the  immediate  states,  inclu- 
ded in  it,  to  acknowledge  his  sovereignty,  and  to  do  him  fealty 
and  homage,  notwithstanding  the  reservations  which  the  eighty- 
seventh  article  of  the  same  treaty  had  stipulated  in  favour  of 
these  very  States.  M.  de  Louvois  appeared  before  Strasburg 
at  the  head  of  the  French  army,  and  summoned  that  city  to  sub- 
mit to  the  King.  Accordingly,  it  surrendered  by  capitulation 
on  the  30th  September  1681.  These  reunions  extended  also  to 
the  Netherlands,  where  the  French  seized,  among  others,  the 
cities  of  Courtray,  Dixmude  and  Luxemburg. 

Louis  XIV.,  in  thus  taking  upon  himself  alone  the  interpre- 
tation of  these  treaties  of  peace,  could  not  but  offend  the  powers 
interested  in  maintaining  them.  A  new  general  league  was 
projected  against  France,  and  at  the  Diet  of  Ratisbon  they  de- 
liberated on  the  means  of  setting  on  foot  an  Imperial  army  ;  but 
the  want  of  unanimity  among  the  members  of  the  Germanic  bo- 
d^  the  troubles  in  Hungary,  which  were  immediately  succeed- 
e(   f     a  war  with  the  Porte,  and  the  march  of  a  Turkish  army 


PERIOD  VII.      A.  D.  1648 — 1713.  9 

on  Vienna,  threw  them  into  a  state  of  consternation,  and  pre- 
vented the  Imperial  Diet  from  adopting  any  vigorous  resolution. 
Spain,  exhausted  by  protracted  wars,  and  abandoned  by  Enor- 
land  and  Holland,  was  quite  incapacitated  from  taking  arms. 
Nothing  else,  therefore,  remained  for  the  parties  concerned,  than 
to  have  recourse  to  negotiation.  Conferences  were  opened  at 
Frankfort,  which,  after  having  languished  for  fifteen  months  in 
that  city,  were  transferred  to  Ratisbon,  where  a  truce  of  twenty 
years  was  signed  (15th  August  1684)  between  France  and  Spain; 
as  also  between  France,  the  Emperor  and  the  Empire.  By  the 
former  of  these  treaties,  Louis  retained  Luxemburg,  Bo  vines, 
and  Chimay,  with  their  dependencies  ;  restoring  all  the  places 
wnich  he  had  occupied  in  the  Netherlands  prior  to  the  20th  Au- 
gust 1683.  As  to  the  treaty  between  France  and  the  Emperor, 
the  former  retained,  during  the  truce,  the  city  of  Strasburg,  and 
the  fort  of  Kehl,  besides  all  the  places  and  seigniories  which 
they  had  taken  possession  of,  since  the  commencement  of  the 
troubles  till  the  1st  of  August  1681.  In  all  the  places  that  were 
surrendered  to  him,  Louis  preserved  the  exercise  of  his  sover- 
eign rights,  leaving  to  the  proprietors  or  seigniors  the  entire  en- 
joyment of  the  fruits  and  revenues  belonging  to  their  territorial 
rights. 

It  was  nearly  about  this  same  time  that  Louis  XIV.  under- 
took to  extirpate  Calvinism  from  France.  Incensed  against  the 
Protestants  by  the  old  chancellor  Letellier,  and  his  minister  Lou- 
vois,  the  chancellor's  son,  he  circumscribed,  by  repeated  declara- 
tions, the  privileges  which  they  enjoyed  in  virtue  of  former 
edicts.  The  holding  of  general  synods  was  forbidden  ;  the  two 
Chambers  were  suppressed ;  and  they  were  all,  without  excep- 
tion, debarred  from  exercising  any  public  function.  At  last, 
Louis  went  so  far  as  to  send,  immediately  after  the  truce  of  Ra- 
tisbon (1684,)  dragoons  over  all  France,  to  endeavour,  as  was 
said,  to  convert  the  Protestants  by  gentle  compulsion.  This 
measure  was  next  followed  by  the  famous  Edict  of  1685,  which 
revoked  that  of  Nantes,  published  in  1598,  and  that  of  Nismes 
in  1629.  All  exercise  of  their  religion — all  assemblies  for  wor- 
ship, even  in  the  house,  were  forbidden  to  the  Protestants,  under 
pain  of  imprisonment  and  confiscation  of  goods.  Their  churches 
were  ordered  to  be  demolished.  Parents  were  enjoined  to  have 
their  children  baptized  by  the  Catholic  clergy,  and  to  bring  them 
up  in  the  religion  of  the  state.  The  ministers  were  banished, 
and  the  other  Protestants  were  forbidden  to  depart  the  country, 
under  pain  of  the  galleys  for  men,  and  imprisonment  and  confis- 
cation for  women.  The  rigour  of  these  prohibitions,  however, 
did  not  prevent  a  vast  multitude  of  the  French  Protestants  from 


10  CHAPTER    Vm. 

removing  to  foreign  countries,  and  transferring  the  seat  of  their 
industry  to  Germany,  England,  and  Holland. 

This  blindfold  zeal  for  religion,  however,  did  not  hinder  Louis 
from  vigorously  supporting  the  rights  of  his  crown  against  the 
encroachments  of  the  court  of  Kome.  Among  the  different  dis- 
putes that  arose  between  him  and  the  Popes,  that  which  regard- 
ed the  prerogative  of  Regale  deserves  to  be  particularly  remark- 
ed. The  King,  by  declarations  issued  in  1673  and  1675,  having 
extended  that  right  to  all  the  archbishoprics  and  bishoprics  within 
the  kingdom,  the  bishops  of  Aleth  and  Pamiers,  who  pretended 
to  be  exempt  from  it,  applied  to  the  Pope,  claiming  his  protection. 
Innocent  XI.  interposed,  by  vehement  briefs  which  he  addressed 
to  the  King  in  favour  of  the  bishops.  This  induced  Louis  to 
convoke  an  assembly  of  the  French  clergy,  in  which,  besides 
the  extension  of  the  Regalt,  he  caused  them  to  draw  up  the  four 
famous  propositions,  which  are  regarded  as  the  basis  of  the  li- 
berties of  the  Gallican  Church.  These  propositions  were,  (1.) 
That  the  power  of  the  Pope  extends  only  to  things  spiritual,  and 
has  no  concern  with  temporal  matters.  (2.)  That  the  authority 
of  the  Pope  in  spiritual  affairs  is  subordinate  to  a  general  coun- 
cil. (3.)  That  it  is  even  limited  by  the  canons,  the  customs, 
and  constitution  of  the  kingdom  and  the  Gallican  Church.  (4.) 
That  in  matters  of  faith  the  Pope's  authority  is  not  infallible. 

The  truce  which  had  been  concluded  for  twenty  years  at  Ra- 
tisbon,  continued  only  four  ;  at  the  end  of  which  Louis  again 
took  up  arms.  He  pretended  to  have  got  information,  that  the 
Emperor  Leopold  only  waited  till  the  conclusion  of  the  peace 
with  the  Turks,  to  make  war  upon  him  ;  and  he  thence  inferred, 
that  prudence  required  him  rather  to  anticipate  his  enemy,  than 
allow  himself  to  be  circumvented.  In  proof  of  this  assertion, 
he  cited  the  treaty  concluded  at  Augsburg  in  1686,  between  the 
Emperor,  the  King  of  Spain,  the  States-General,  Sweden,  the 
Duke  of  Savoy,  and  the  principal  States  of  the  Empire,  for  the 
maintenance  of  the  treaties  concluded  with  France.  Louis 
wished  moreover  to  enforce  the  claims  which  the  Dutchess  of 
Orleans,  his  sister-in-law,  alleged  to  the  succession  of  the  Pala- 
tinate. That  princess  was  the  sister  of  Charles,  the  last  Elector 
Palatine,  of  the  family  of  Simmern,  who  died  in  1685.  She 
did  not  dispute  the  fiefs  with  her  brother's  successor  in  the 
Electorate  ;  she  claimed  the  freeholds,  which  comprehended  a 
considerable  part  of  the  Palatinate  ;  while  the  new  Elector, 
Philip  William,  of  the  family  of  Neuburg,  maintained  thac,  ac- 
cording to  the  laws  and  usages  of  Germany,  the  entire  succes- 
sion belonged  to  him,  without  any  partition  whatever. 

Besides  these  motives  which  Louis  XIV.  set  forth  in  a  long 


PERIOD  vn.     A.  D.  164S— 1713.  11 

manifesto,  there  was  another  which  he  kept  concealed,  the  ob- 
ject of  which  was,  to  prevent  the  expedition  which  the  Prince 
of  Orange.  Stadtholder  of  the  United  Provinces,  was  preparing 
to  send  to  England,  against  James  II.  his  brother-in-law,  who 
had  become  odious  to  the  whole  English  nation.  It  was  of  great 
importance  for  France  to  maintain,  on  the  throne  of  Great  Bri- 
tain, a  prince  whom  she  protected,  and  who  would  always  es- 
pouse her  interests ;  while  it  was  easy  to  foresee,  that  if  the 
Prince  of  Orange,  the  declared  enemy  x)i  Louis,  and  the  author 
of  the  league  of  Augsburg,  should  succeed  in  uniting  the  crown 
of  England  to  the  stadtholdership,  he  would  not  fail  to  employ 
this  new  influence,  and  turn  the  combined  force  of  both  states 
against  France.  The  only  method  of  preventing  an  event  so 
prejudicial  to  the  true  interests  of  that  kingdom  would  have  been 
doubtless,  to  equip  an  expedition,  and  pitch  his  camp  on  the 
frontiers  of  Holland.  The  Court  of  France  knew  this  well,  and 
yet  they  contented  themselves  with  sending  an  army  to  the 
Khine,  which  took  possession  of  Philipsburg,  Mayence,  and  the 
whole  Palatinate,  as  well  as  a  part  of  the  Electorate  of  Treves 
(Sept.  and  Oct.  1688.)  Louvois,  the  French  minister  who  di- 
rected these  operations,  had  flattered  himself  that  the  Dutch, 
when  they  beheld  the  war  breaking  out  in  their  vicinity,  would 
not  dare  to  take  any  part  in  the  troubles  of  England.  In  this 
opinion  he  was  deceived ;  the  Prince  of  Orange,  supported  by  the 
Dutch  fleet,  effected  a  landing  in  England  (16th  November  1688.) 
The  revolution  there  was  soon  completed,  by  the  dethronement 
of  James  II. ;  and  Louis  XIV.,  ending  where  he  should  have 
begun,  then  declared  war  against  the  States-General.  This 
mistaken  policy  of  the  French  minister  became  the  true  source  of 
aU  the  subsequent  reverses  that  eclipsed  the  reign  of  Louis  XIV. 
A  powerful  league  was  nov/  formed  against  France,  which 
was  joined  successively  by  the  Emperor,  the  Empire,  England, 
Holland,  Spain  and  Savoy  (1689.)  Louis  XIV.,  in  order  to 
make  head  against  these  formidable  enemies,  recalled  his  troops 
from  those  places  which  they  occupied  in  the  Palatinate,  and  on 
the  banks  of  the  Rhine  ;  but  in  withdrawing  them,  he  ordered 
a  great  number  of  the  towns  to  be  burnt  to  ashes,  and  laid  waste 
the  whole  country.  By  this  barbarity,  which  circumstances  by 
no  means  called  for,  he  only  aggravated  the  hatred  and  increased 
the  ardour  of  his  enemies.  War  was  commenced  by  sea  and 
land ;  in  Italy,  Spain,  Ireland,  the  Low  Countries,  and  on  the 
Rhine.  Louis  supported  it  nobly  against  a  great  part  of  Europe, 
now  combined  against  him.  His  armies  were  victorious  every 
where.  Marshal  Luxembourg  signalized  himself  in  the  cam- 
paigns of  Flanders,  by  the  victories  which  he  gained  over  the 


12  CHAPTER  VUI. 

allies  at  Fleurus  (1st  July  1690,)  Steinkirk  (3d  Aug.  1692,)  and 
Landen  or  Nerwinden  (29th  July  1693.)  In  Italy.  Marshal  Ca- 
tinat  gained  the  battle  of  Stafarda  (18th  Aug.  1690,)  and  Mar- 
saglia  (4th  Oct.  1693)  over  the  Duke  of  Savoy.  The  naval 
glory  of  France  was  well  supported  by  the  Count  de  Tourville 
at  the  battles  of  Beachy-head  (10th  July  1690,)  and  La  Hogue 
(29th  May  1692.) 

However  brilliant  the  success  of  her  arms  might  be,  the  pro- 
digious efforts  which  the  war  required  could  not  but  exhaust 
France,  and  make  her  anxious  for  the  return  of  peace.  Besides, 
Jiouis  XIV.  foresaw  the  approaching  death  of  Charles  II.  of 
Spain  ;  and  it  was  of  importance  for  him  to  break  the  grand 
alliance  as  soon  as  possible ;  as  one  of  its  articles  secured  the 
succession  of  the  Spanish  monarchy  to  the  Emperor  and  his 
descendants,  to  the  exclusion  of  the  King  of  France.  In  this 
case,  he  wished,  for  his  own  interest,  to  give  every  facility  for 
the  restoration  of  peace  ;  and  by  the  treaty  which  he  concluded 
separately  with  the  Duke  of  Savoy,  he  granted  that  Prince,  be- 
sides the  fortress  of  Pignerol,  and  the  marriage  of  his  daughter 
with  the  Duke  of  Burgundy,  the  privilege  of  royal  honours  for 
his  ambassadors.  This  treaty,  concluded  at  Turin  (29th  Aug. 
1696,)  was  a  preliminary  to  the  general  peace,  signed  at  Rys- 
wick,  between  France,  Spain,  England,  and  Holland  (20th  Sept. 
1697.)  Each  of  the  contracting  parties  consented  to  make 
mutual  restitutions.  France  even  restored  to  Spain  all  the  towns 
and  territories  which  she  had  occupied  in  the  Low  Countries, 
by  means  of  the  reunions ;  with  the  exception  of  eighty-two 
places,  mentioned  in  a  particular  list,  as  being  dependencies  of 
Charlemont,  Maubeuge,  and  other  places  ceded  by  the  preceding 
treaties.  Peace  between  France,  the  Emperor,  and  the  Empire 
was  also  signed  at  Ryswick.  The  treaties  of  Westphalia  and 
Nimeguen  were  there  renewed ;  and  the  decrees  of  the  Cham- 
ber of  Reunion  at  Metz,  and  of  the  Sovereign  Courts  at  Besan- 
9on  and  Brisach,  were  rescinded  and  annulled.  Louis  XIV. 
engaged  to  restore  to  the  Empire  all  that  he  had  appropriated  to 
himself,  by  means  of  the  reunions,  either  before  or  during  the 
war ;  that  is  to  say,  all  places  situated  or  acquired  beyond  the 
bounds  of  Alsace.  The  city  of  Strasburg  was  ceded  to  France, 
by  a  particular  article  of  the  treaty  ;  but  the  fortress  of  Kehl,  the 
cities  of  Friburg,  Brisach,  and  Philipsburg,  were  surrendered  to 
the  Emperor.  Leopold,  Duke  of  Lorraine,  and  son  of  Charles 
v.,  was  reinstated  in  his  dutchy,  without  any  other  reservation 
than  that  of  Saar-Louis,  and  the  city  and  prefecture  of  Longwy. 
As  to  the  claims  of  the  Dutchess  of  Orleans  on  the  Palatinate 
they  were  submitted  to  the  arbitration  of  the  Emperor  and  the 


PERIOD  vn.     A.  D.  1648—1713.  13 

King  of  France  ;  to  be  referred  to  the  decision  of  the  Pope, 
should  these  two  Sovereigns  happen  to  differ  in  opinion. 

The  peace  of  Ryswick  was  followed  by  the  war  of  the  Spanish 
Succession,  which  embroiled  Europe  afresh,  and  occasioned 
considerable  changes  in  its  political  state.  Charles  II.  King  of 
Spain,  son  of  Philip  IV.,  and  last  male  descendant  of  the  Spanish 
branch  of  the  House  of  Austria,  having  neither  son,  nor  daughter, 
nor  brother,  the  Spanish  monarchy,  according  to  a  fundamental 
law  of  the  kingdom,  which  fixed  the  succession  in  the  cognate 
line,  appeared  to  belong  to  Maria  Theresa,  Queen  of  France 
eldest  sister  of  Charles,  and  to  the  children  of  her  marriage  with 
Louis  XIV.  To  this  title  of  Maria  Theresa,  was  opposed  her 
express  renunciation,  inserted  in  her  marriage-contract,  and  con- 
firmed by  the  peace  of  the  Pyrenees  ;  but  the  French  maintained, 
that  that  renunciation  was  null,  and  that  it  could  not  prejudice 
the  children  of  the  Queen,  who  held  their  right,  not  from  their 
mother,  but  by  the  fundamental  law  of  Spain. 

Admitting  the  validity  of  the  Queen's  renunciation,  the  lineal 
order  fixed  the  Spanish  succession  on  her  younger  sister,  Mar- 
garet Theresa,  who  had  married  the  Emperor  Leopold  I.,  and 
left  an  only  daughter,  Maria  Antoinette,  spouse  to  the  Elector 
of  Bavaria,  and  mother  of  Joseph  Ferdinand,  the  Electoral 
Prince  of  Bavaria. 

The  Emperor,  who  wished  to  preserve  the  Spanish  monarchy 
m  his  own  family,  availed  himself  of  the  renunciation  which  he 
had  exacted  from  his  daughter,  the  Archdutchess  Maria  Antoi- 
nette, when  she  married  Maximilian,  the  Elector  of  Bavaria,  to 
appear  as  a  candidate  himself,  and  advance  the  claims  of  his 
mother,  Maria  Anne,  daughter  of  Philip  III.  King  of  Spain,  and 
aunt  of  Charles  II.  He  alleged,  that  the  Spanish  succession 
had  been  secured  to  this  latter  Princess,  both  by  her  marriage- 
contract,  and  by  the  testaments  of  the  Kings  of  Spain  ;  and  as 
he  had  two  sons,  the  Archdukes  Joseph  and  Charles,  by  his 
marriage  with  the  Princess  Palatine  of  Neuburg,  he  destined 
the  elder  for  the  Imperial  throne  and  the  States  of  Austria,  and 
the  younger  for  the  Spanish  monarchy. 

These  different  claims  having  excited  apprehensions  of  a  ge- 
neral war,  England  and  Holland,  from  a  desire  to  prevent  it, 
drew  up  a  treaty  of  partition,  in  concert  with  Louis  XIV.  (11th 
Oct.  1698,)  in  virtue  of  which  the  Spanish  monarchy  was  se- 
cured to  Joseph  Ferdinand,  in  case  of  the  death  of  Charles  II. ; 
while  the  kingdom  of  the  Two  Sicilies,  with  the  ports  of  Tusca- 
ny, the  marquisate  of  Finale,  and  the  province  of  Guipuscoa, 
were  reserved  to  the  Dauphin  of  France.  The  Archduke 
Charles,  son  to  the  Emperor,  was  to  have  the  dutchy  of  Milan. 

'/OL.    II  ? 


M 


CHAPTER  VIII. 


Although  the  King  of  Spain  disapproved  of  the  treaty,  so  far  as 
it  admitted  a  partition,  nevertheless,  in  his  will,  he  recognised 
the  Prince  of  Bavaria  as  his  successor  in  the  Spanish  monarchy. 

A  premature  death  having  frustrated  all  the  high  expectations 
of  that  prince,  the  powers  who  had  concluded  the  first  treaty  of 
partition  drew  up  a  second,  which  was  signed  at  London  (March 
13,  1700.)  According  to  this,  the  Archduke  Charles,  youngest 
son  of  the  Emperor  Leopold,  was  destined  the  presumptive  heir 
to  the  Spanish  monarchy.  They  awarded  to  the  Dauphin  the 
dutchy  of  Lorraine,  with  the  kingdom  of  the  Two  Sicilies,  and 
the  province  of  Guipuscoa ;  assigning  to  the  Duke  of  Lorraine 
the  dutchy  of  Milan  in  exchange.  Louis  XIV.  used  every  effort 
to  have  this  new  treaty  of  partition  approved  by  the  Court  of 
Vienna.  He  sent  thither  the  Marquis  Villars,  who,  after  having 
been  long  amused  with  vague  promises,  failed  entirely  in  his 
negotiation ;  and  the  Emperor,  whose  main  object  was  to  con- 
ciliate the  Court  of  Madrid,  lost  the  only  favourable  moment 
which  might  have  fixed  the  succession  of  the  Spanish  monarchy 
in  his  family,  with  the  consent  of  Louis  XIV.  and  the  principal 
Courts  of  Europe. 

At  Madrid,  this  affair  took  a  turn  diametrically  opposite  to 
the  views  and  interests  of  the  Court  of  Vienna.  Charles  II., 
following  the  counsels  of  his  prime  minister,  Cardinal  Porto- 
carrero,  and  after  having  taken  the  advice  of  the  Pope,  and  of 
the  most  eminent  theologians  and  lawyers  in  his  kingdom,  de- 
termined to  make  a  second  will,  in  which  he  recognised  the 
rights  of  Maria  Theresa,  his  eldest  sister ;  and  declared,  that  as 
the  renunciation  of  that  princess  had  been  made  solely  to  pre- 
vent the  union  of  Spain  with  the  kingdom  of  France,  that  mo- 
tive ceased  on  transferring  the  Spanish  monarchy  to  one  of  the 
younger  sons  of  the  Dauphin.  Accordingly,  he  nominated  Phi- 
lip of  Anjou,  the  Dauphin's  second  son,  heir  to  his  whole  do- 
minions ;  in  case  of  his  death,  the  Duke  of  Berri,  his  younger 
brother ;  next,  the  Archduke  Charles  ;  and  lastly,  the  Duke  of 
Savoy ;  expressly  forbidding  all  partition  of  the  monarchy. 

Charles  II.  having  died  on  the  1st  of  November  following, 
the  Junta,  or  Council  of  Regency,  which  he  had  appointed  by 
his  will,  sent  to  Louis  XIV.,  praying  him  to  accede  to  the  set- 
tlement of  their  late  King,  and  give  up  his  grandson  to  the 
wishes  of  the  Spanish  nation.  The  same  courier  had  orders  to 
pass  on  to  Vienna,  in  case  of  a  refusal  on  his  part,  and  make 
the  same  offer  to  the  Archduke.  The  Court  of  France  then 
assembled  a  Grand  Council,  in  which  they  held  a  deliberation 
as  to  what  step  it  was  best  to  adopt,  in  an  affair  which  so  nearly 
oncerned  the  general  repose  of  Europe.     The  result  of  this 


PERIOD  VII.      A.  D.  1648 — 1713.  16 

lyouncil  was,  that  they  ought  to  accfde  to  the  will  of  Charles 
II.,  and  renounce  the  advantages  which  the  second  treaty  of 
partition  held  out  to  France.  It  was  alleged,  as  the  reason  of 
this  resolution,  that  by  refusing  to  accept  the  will,  Louis  must 
either  abandon  altogether  his  pretensions  to  the  Spanish  mo- 
aarchy,  or  undertake  an  expensive  war  to  obtain  by  conquest 
what  the  treaty  of  partition  assigned  him ;  without  being  able, 
in  this  latter  case,  to  reckon  on  the  effectual  co-operation  of  the 
two  maritime  courts. 

Louis  XIV.  having  therefore  resolved  to  accede  to  the  will, 
Philip  of  Anjou  was  proclaimed  King  by  the  Spaniards,  and 
made  his  solemn  entry  into  Madrid  on  the  14th  of  April  1701. 
Most  of  the  European  powers,  such  as  the  States  of  Italy,  Swe- 
den, England,  Holland,  and  the  kingdoms  of  the  North,  ac- 
knowledged Philip  V. ;  the  King  of  Portugal,  and  the  Duke  of 
Savoy  even  concluded  treaties  of  alliance  with  him.  More- 
over, the  situation  of  political  affairs  in  Germany,  Hungary,  and 
the  North  was  such,  that  it  would  have  been  easy  for  Louis 
XIV.,  with  prudent  management,  to  preserve  the  Spanish  crown 
on  the  head  of  his  grandson  ;  but  he  seemed,  as  if  on  purpose, 
to  do  every  thing  to  raise  all  Europe  against  him.  It  was  al-* 
leged,  that  he  aimed  at  the  chimerical  project  of  universal  mo- 
narchy, and  the  union  of  France  with  Spain.  Instead  of  trying 
to  do  away  this  supposition,  he  gave  it  additional  force,  by 
issuing  letters-patent  in  favour  of  Philip,  at  the  moment  when 
he  was  departing  for  Spain,  to  the  effect  of  preserving  his  rights 
to  the  throne  of  France.  The  Dutch  dreaded  nothing  so  much 
as  to  see  the  French  making  encroachments  on  the  Spanish 
Netherlands,  which  they  regarded  as  their  natural  barrier  a- 
gainst  France ;  the  preservation  of  which  appeared  to  be  equally 
interesting  to  England. 

It  would  have  been  prudent  in  Louis  XIV.  to  give  these  ma- 
ritime powers  some  security  on  this  point,  who,  since  the  eleva- 
tion of  William  Prince  of  Orange  to  the  crown  of  Great  Britain, 
held  as  it  were  in  their  hands  the  balance  of  Europe.  W^ithout 
being  swayed  by  this  consideration,  he  obtained  authority  from 
the  Council  of  Madrid,  to  introduce  a  French  army  into  the  Spa- 
nish Netherlands  ;  and  on  this  occasion  the  Dutch  troops,  who 
were  quartered  in  various  places  of  the  Netherlands,  according 
vO  a  stipulation  with  the  late  King  of  Spain,  were  disarmed.  This 
circumstance  became  a  powerful  motive  for  King  William  to 
rouse  the  States-General  against  France.  He  found  some  diffi- 
culty, however,  in  drawing  over  the  British  Parliament  to  his 
views,  as  a  great  majority  in  that  House  were  averse  to  mingle 
m  the  quarrels  of  the  Continent ;  but  the  death  of  James  II.  a' 


16  CHAPTER   Vm. 

tered  the  minds  and  inclinations  of  the  English.  Louis  XIV. 
having  formerly  acknowledged  the  son  of  that  prince  as  King  of 
Great  Britain,  the  English  Parliament  had  no  longer  any  hesi- 
tation in  joining  the  Dutch,  and  the  other  enemies  of  France. 
A  new  and  powerful  league  was  formed  against  Louis.  The 
Emperor,  England,  the  United  Provinces,  the  Empire,  the 
Kings  of  Portugal  and  Prussia,  and  the  Duke  of  Savoy,  all 
joined  it  in  succession.  The  allies  engaged  to  restore  to  Aus- 
tria, the  Spanish  Netherlands,  the  dutchy  of  Milan,  the  king- 
dom of  the  Tw^o  Sicilies,  with  the  ports  of  Tuscany ;  and  nevei 
to  permit  the  union  of  France  with  Spain. 

At  the  commencement  of  the  war,  Louis  for  some  time  main- 
tained the  glory  and  superiority  of  his  arms,  notwithstanding 
the  vast  number  of  adversaries  he  had  to  oppose.  It  was  not 
until  the  campaign  of  1704  that  fortune  abandoned  him  ;  when 
one  reverse  was  only  succeeded  by  another.  The  Duke  of 
Marlborough  and  Prince  Eugene  defeated  Marshal  de  Tallard  at 
Hochstett  or  Blenheim,  (Aug.  13,)  where  he  lost  thirty  thousand 
men,  and  was  himself  carried  prisoner  to  England.  This  disas- 
ter was  followed  by  the  loss  of  Bavaria,  and  all  the  French  pos- 
sessions beyond  the  Rhine.  The  battle  which  Marlborough 
gained  (May  23, 1706)  at  Ramillies  in  Brabant  was  not  less  dis- 
astrous ;  it  secured  to  the  allies  the  conquest  of  the  greater 
part  of  the  Netherlands  ;  and  to  increase  these  misfortunes, 
Marshal  de  Marsin  lost  the  famous  battle  of  Turin  against 
Prince  Eugene  (Sept.  7,)  which  obliged  the  French  troops  to 
evacuate  Italy.  The  battle  which  was  fought  at  Oudenarde  in 
Flanders  (July  11,  1708)  was  not  so  decisive.  Both  sides 
fought  with  equal  advantage ;  but  the  duke  of  Burgundy,  who 
was  commander-in-chief  of  the  French  army,  having  quitted 
the  field  of  battle  during  the  night,  contrary  to  the  advice  of 
Vendome,  Marlborough  made  this  an  occasion  for  claiming  the 
victory. 

At  length  the  dreadful  winter  of  1709,  and  the  battle  of 
Malplaquet,  which  Marlborough  gained  over  Villars  (Sept.  11,) 
reduced  France  to  the  greatest  distress,  and  brought  Louis  un- 
der the  necessity  of  suing  for  peace,  and  even  descending  to 
the  most  humiliating  conditions.  M.  de  Torcy,  his  minister  for 
foreign  affairs,  w^as  despatched  to  the  Hague  ;  and,  among  a 
number  of  preliminary  articles,  he  agreed  to  make  restitution  of 
all  the  conquests  which  the  French  had  made  since  the  peace  of 
Munster.  He  consented  to  surrender  the  city  of  Strasburg,  and 
henceforth  to  possess  Alsace  according  to  the  literal  terms  of 
the  treaty  of  Munster ;  the  throne  of  Spain  was  reserved  for 
the  archduke  ;  and  Louis  consented  to  abandon  the  interests  of 


PERIOD  VII.      A.  D.  1648 — 1713.  17 

Pliilip.  But  the  allies,  rendered  haughty  by  their  success,  de- 
manded of  the  King  that  he  should  oblige  his  grandson  volun- 
tarily to  surrender  his  crown,  otherwise  they  would  compel  him 
by  force  of  arms,  and  that  within  the  short  space  of  two  months. 
The  conferences,  which  had  been  transferred  from  the  Hague 
to  Gertruydenberg,  were  consequently  broken  off,  and  the  war 
continued. 

In  this  critical  state  of  things,  two  unexpected  events  happened, 
which  changed  the  face  of  affairs;  and  Louis  XIV.,  far  from 
being  constrained  to  submit  to  the  articles  of  the  preliminaries 
at  Gertruydenberg,  saw  himself  even  courted  by  England,  and 
in  a  condition  to  dictate  the  law  to  several  of  the  powers  that 
were  leagued  against  him.  The  Emperor  Joseph  I.  died  (April 
11th  1711)  without  leaving  any  male  offspring.  His  brother  the 
Archduke  Charles,  who  took  the  title  of  King  of  Spain,  now 
obtained  the  Imperial  dignity,  and  became  heir  of  all  the  States 
belonging  to  the  German  branch  of  the  House  of  Austria.  It 
appeared,  therefore,  that  the  system  of  equilibrium  could  not 
possibly  admit  the  same  prince  to  engross  likewise  the  whole 
Spanish  monarchy.  This  event  was  coupled  with  another,  rela- 
tive to  the  change  which  had  taken  place  in  the  ministry  and 
Parliament  of  Great  Britain.  The  Whigs,  who  had  been  the 
ruling  party  since  the  Revolution  of  1689,  were  suddenly  sup- 
planted by  the  Tories.  This  overthrow  brought  the  Duke  of 
Marlborough  into  disgrace,  v/ho  had  long  stood  at  the  head  of 
affairs  in  England,  as  chief  of  the  Whig  faction.  Queen  Anne, 
who  stood  in  awe  of  him,  found  no  other  expedient  for  depriving 
him  of  his  influence,  than  to  make  peace  with  France.  L'Abbe 
Gualtier,  who  resided  at  London  in  quality  of  almoner  to  the 
ambassador  of  Charles  of  Austria,  was  despatched  by  her  Ma- 
jesty to  France,  to  make  the  first  overtures  of  peace  to  Louis.  A 
secret  negotiation  was  set  on  foot  between  the  two  Courts,  the 
result  of  which  was  a  preliminary  treaty  signed  at  London 
(October  8th  1711.) 

A  congress  was  opened  at  Utrecht,  with  the  view  of  a  general 
pacification.  The  conferences  which  took  place  there,  after  the 
month  of  February  1712,  met  with  long  interruptions;  both  on 
account  of  the  disinclination  of  several  of  the  allied  powers  for 
peace,  and  because  of  the  matters  to  be  separately  treated  be- 
tween France  and  England,  which  retarded  the  progress  of  the 
general  negotiation.  The  battle  of  Denain,  which  Marshal  Vil- 
lars  gained  over  the  Earl  of  Albemarle  (July  24,)  helped  to  rea- 
der the  allies  more  tractable.  Peace  was  signed  at  Utrecht  in 
the  month  of  April  1713,  between  France  and  the  chief  bellige- 
rent powers.     The  Emperor  alone  refused  to  take  part  in  it,  as 

2  ^ 


18  CHAPTER  Vin. 

he  could  not  resolve  to  abandon  his  claims  to  the  Spanish 
monarchy. 

The  grand  aim  of  England  in  that  transaction,  was  to  limit 
the  overwhelming  power  of  France  ;  for  this  purpose  she  took 
care,  in  that  treaty,  to  establish  as  a  fundamental  and  inviolable 
iaw,  the  clause  which  ordained  that  the  kingdoms  of  France  and 
Spain  never  should  be  united.  To  effect  this,  it  was  necessary 
that  Philip  of  Anjou  should  formally  renounce  his  right  to  the 
crown  of  France ;  while  his  brother  the  Duke  de  Berri,  as  well 
as  the  Duke  of  Orleans,  should  do  the  same  in  regard  to  the 
claims  which  they  might  advance  to  the  Spanish  monarchy. 
The  deeds  of  these  renunciations,  drawn  up  and  signed  in 
France  and  in  Spain,  in  presence  of  the  English  ambassadors, 
were  inserted,  in  the  treaty  of  Utrecht ;  as  were  also  the  letters- 
patent  which  revoked  and  annulled  those  that  Louis  had  given, 
for  preserving  the  right  of  the  Duke  of  Anjou  to  the  succession 
of  the  French  crown.  Louis  XIV.  promised  for  himself,  his 
heirs  and  successors,  never  to  attempt  either  to  prevent  or  elude 
the  effect  of  these  renunciations ;  and  failing  the  descendants 
of  Philip,  the  Spanish  succession  was  secured  to  the  Duke 
of  Savoy,  his  male  descendants,  and  the  other  princes  of  his 
family,  to  the  exclusion  of  the  French  princes. 

Another  fundamental  clause  of  the  treaty  of  Utrecht  declared, 
that  no  province,  city,  fortress  or  place,  in  the  Spanish  Nether- 
lands, should  ever  be  ceded,  transferred,  or  granted  to  the  crown 
of  France ;  nor  to  any  prince  or  princess  of  French  extraction, 
under  any  title  whatever.  These  provinces,  designed  to  serve 
as  a  barrier  for  the  Low  Countries  against  France,  were  ad- 
judged to  the  Emperor  and  the  House  of  Austria,  together  with 
the  kingdom  of  Naples,  the  ports  of  Tuscany,  and  the  dutchy  of 
Milan  ;  and  as  die  Emperor  was  not  a  party  to  the  treaty,  it  was 
agreed  that  the  Spanish  Netherlands  should  remain  as  a  deposit 
in  the  hands  of  the  States-General,  until  that  prince  should  ar' 
range  with  them  respecting  the  barrier-towns.  The  same  stipu- 
lation was  made  in  regard  to  that  part  of  the  French  Nether- 
lands which  Louis  had  ceded  in  favour  of  the  Emperor ;  such 
as  Menin,  Tournay,  Furnes,  and  Furnes-Ambacht,  the  fortress 
of  Kenock,  Ypres,  and  their  dependencies. 

England,  in  particular,  obtained  by  this  treaty  various  and 
considerable  advantages.  Louis  XIV.  withdrew  his  protection 
from  the  Pretender,  and  engaged  never  to  give  him  harbour  in 
France.  The  succession  to  the  throne  of  Great  Britain,  was 
guaranteed  to  the  House  of  Hanover.  They  agreed  to  raze  the 
fortifications  of  the  port  of  Dunkirk,  which  had  so  much  excited 
the  jealousy  of  England ;  while  France  likewise  ceded  to  hei 


PERIOD  VII.      A.  D.  1648—1713.  19 

Hudson's  Bay,  and  Straits,  the  Island  of  St.  Christopher,  Nova 
Scotia,  and  Newfoundland  in  America.  Spain  gave  up  Gib- 
rahar  and  Minorca,  both  of  which  had  been  conquered  by  the 
English  during  the  war;  they  secured  to  her,  besides,  for  thirty 
years,  the  privilege  of  furnishing  negroes  for  the  Spanish  Ameri- 
:an  colonies. 

The  King  of  Prussia  obtained  the  Spanish  part  of  Gueldres, 
with  the  city  of  that  name,  and  the  district  of  Kessel,  in  lieu  of 
the  principality  of  Orange,  w^hich  was  given  to  France  ;  though 
he  had  claims  to  it  as  the  heir  of  William  III.  King  of  England. 
The  kingdom  of  Sicily  was  adjudged  to  the  Duke  of  Savoy,  to 
be  possessed  by  him  and  his  male  descendants ;  and  they  con- 
firmed to  him  the  grants  which  the  Emperor  had  made  him,  of 
that  part  of  the  dutchy  of  Milan  Avhich  had  belonged  to  the  Duke 
of  Mantua,  as  also  Alexandria,  Valencia,  the  Lumelline,  and  the 
Valley  of  Sessia.  Finally,  Sardinia  was  reserved  for  the  Elec- 
tor of  Bavaria,  the  ally  of  France  in  that  war. 

As  the  Emperor  had  not  acceded  to  the  treaty  of  Utrecht,  the 
war  was  continued  between  him  and  France.  Marshal  Villars 
took  Landau  and  Friburg  in  Brisgaw  ;  afterwards  a  conference 
took  place  between  hitn  and  Prince  Eugene  at  Rastadt.  New 
preliminaries  were  there  drawn  up  ;  and  a  congress  was  opened 
at  Baden  in  Switzerland,  where  a  definitive  peace  was  signed 
(Sept.  7th  1714.)  The  former  treaties,  since  the  peace  of  West- 
phalia, were  there  renew^ed.  The  Electors  of  Cologne  and  Ba- 
varia, who  had  been  put  to  the  ban  of  the  Empire,  and  deprived 
of  their  estates,  were  there  fully  re-established.  Sardinia,  which 
had  been  assigned  to  the  Elector  of  Bavaria,  by  the  treaty  of 
Utrecht,  remained  in  possession  of  the  Emperor,  who  likewise 
recovered  Brisach  and  Friburg  in  Brisgaw,  instead  of  Landau 
which  had  been  ceded  to  France. 

Louis  XIV.  did  not  long  survive  this  latter  treaty.  Never 
did  any  sovereign  patronize  literature  and  the  fine  arts  like  him. 
Many  celebrated  academies  for  the  promotion  of  the  arts  and 
sciences  owe  their  origin  to  his  auspices,  such  as  the  Academy 
of  Inscriptions,  Belles-Lettres,  Sciences,  Painting,  and  Archi- 
tecture. His  reign  was  illustrious  for  eminent  men,  and  talents 
of  every  description,  which  were  honoured  and  encouraged  by 
him.  He  even  extended  his  favour  to  the  philosophers  and  lit- 
erati of  foreign  countries.  This  prince  has  been  reproached  for 
his  two  great  partiality  to  the  Jesuits,  his  confessors,  and  for 
the  high  importance  which  he  attached  to  the  dispute  between 
the  Jansenists  and  the  Molinists,  which  gave  rise  to  the  famous 
Bull  Unigenitas^  ^  approved  by  the  clergy,  and  published  by  the 
King  as  a  law  of  the  state  over  all  France.     This  illustrious 


90  CHAPTER  VIII. 

Prince  ended  his  days  after  a  reign  of  seventy-two  years,  fertile 
in  great  events  ;  he  transmitted  the  crown  to  his  great  grrand- 
son,  Louis  XV.,  who  was  only  five  years  of  age  when  he  mount- 
ed the  throne  (Sept.  1,  1714.) 

In  the  course  of  this  period,  several  memorable  events  hap- 
pened in  Germany.  The  Emperor,  Leopold  I.,  having  assem- 
bled a  Diet  at  Ratisbon,  to  demand  subsidies  against  the  Turks, 
and  to  settle  certain  matters  which  the  preceding  Diet  had  left 
undecided,  the  sittings  of  that  assembly  were  continued  to  the 
present  time,  without  ever  having  been  declared  permanent  by 
any  formal  law  of  the  Empire.  The  peace  of  Westphalia,  had 
instituted  an  eighth  Electorate  for  the  Palatine  branch  of  Wit- 
tlesbach  ;  the  Emperor,  Leopold  I.,  erected  a  ninth,  in  favour  of 
the  younger  branch  of  the  House  of  Brunswick.  The  first  Elec- 
tor of  this  family,  known  by  the  name  of  Brunswick-Luneburg, 
or  Hanover,  was  the  Duke  Ernest  Augustus,  whom  the  Em- 
peror invested  in  his  new  dignity,  to  descend  to  his  heirs-male, 
on  account  of  his  engaging  to  furnish  Austria  with  supplies  in 
money  and  troops,  for  carrying  on  the  war  against  the  Turks. 
This  innovation  met  with  decided  opposition  in  the  Empire. 
Several  of  the  Electors  were  hostile  to  it ;  and  the  whole  body 
of  Princes  declared,  that  the  new  Electorate  was  prejudicial  to 
their  dignity,  and  tended  to  introduce  an  Electoral  Oligarchy. 
The  Duke  of  Brunswick- Wolffenbuttel  especially  protested 
against  the  preference  which  was  given  to  the  younger  branch 
of  his  House  over  the  elder,  in  spite  of  family  compacts,  and  the 
right  of  primogeniture  established  in  the  House  of  Brunswick. 

A  confederacy  w^as  thus  formed  against  the  ninth  Electorate. 
The  allied  Princes  resolved,  in  an  assembly  held  at  Nuremberg, 
to  raise  an  army,  and  apply  to  the  powers  that  had  guaranteed 
the  treaty  of  Westphalia.  France  espoused  the  quarrel  of  these 
Princes  ;  she  concluded  with  the  King  of  Denmark,  a  treaty  of 
alliance  and  subsidy  against  the  ninth  Electorate,  and  declared, 
before  the  Diet  of  the  Empire,  that  she  regarded  this  innovation 
as  a  blow  aimed  at  the  treaty  of  Westphalia.  In  course  of  time, 
however,  these  animosities  were  allayed.  The  Princes  recog- 
nised the  ninth  Electorate,  and  the  introduction  of  the  new 
Elector  took  place  in  1708.  A  decree  was  passed  at  the  Diet; 
which  annexed  a  clause  to  his  admission,  that  the  Catholic  Elec- 
tors should  have  the  privilege  of  a  casting  vote,  in  cases  where 
the  number  of  Protestant  Electors  should  happen  to  equal  that 
of  the  Catholics.  By  the  same  decree,  the  King  of  Bohemia, 
who  had  formerly  never  been  admitted  but  at  the  election  of  the 
Emperors,  obtained  a  voice  in  all  the  deliberations  of  the  E  ripirc* 
and  the  Electoral  College,  on  condition  of  his  paying,  in  ^ime 
coming,  an  Electoral  quota  for  the  kingdom  of  Bohemia. 


PERIOD  VII.      A.  D.  lb*48 — 1713.  ^i 

The  Imperial  capitulations  assumed  a  form  entirely  new,  about 
the  beginning  of  the  eighteenth  century.  A  difference  had  for- 
merly existed  among  the  members  of  the  Germanic  body  on  this 
important  article  of  public  law.  They  regarded  it  as  a  thing 
illegal,  that  the  Electors  alone  should  claim  the  right  of  drawing 
up  the  capitulations ;  and  they  maintained,  with  much  reason, 
that  before  these  compacts  should  have  the  force  of  a  fundamen- 
tal law  of  the  Empire,  it  was  necessary  that  they  should  have 
the  deliberation  and  consent  of  the  whole  Diet.  The  Princes, 
there  fore,,  demanded,  that  there  should  be  laid  before  the  Diet  a 
scheme  of  perpetual  capitulation,  to  serve  as  a  rule  for  the  Elec- 
tors on  every  new  election.  That  question  had  already  been 
debated  at  the  Congress  of  Westphalia,  and  sent  back  by  it  for 
the  decision  of  the  Diet.  There  it  became  the  subject  of  long 
discussion  ;  and  it  was  not  till  the  interregnum,  which  followed 
the  death  of  the  Emperor  Joseph  I.,  that  the  principal  points  of 
the  perpetual  capitulation  were  finally  settled.  The  plan  then 
agreed  to  was  adopted  as  the  basis  of  the  capitulation,  which  they 
prescribed  to  Charles  VI.  and  his  successors.  Among  other 
articles,  a  clause  was  inserted  regarding  the  election  of  a  king  of 
the  Romans.  This,  it  was  agreed,  should  never  take  place, 
during  the  Emperor's  life,  except  in  a  case  of  urgent  necessity  ; 
md  that  th";  proscription  of  an  elector,  prince,  or  state  of  the 
Empire,  should  never  take  place,  without  the  consent  of  the 
)iet,  and  observing  the  formalities  enjoined  by  the  new  capi- 
dation. 

Three  Electoral  families  of  the  Empire  were  raised  to  the 
Dyal  dignity ;  viz.  those  of  Saxony,  Brandenburg,  and  Bruns- 
/ick-Luneburg.      Augustus  II.,  Elector  of  Saxony,  after  hav- 
n.g  made  a  profession  of  the  Catholic  religion,  was  elected  to 
he  throne  of  Poland  ;  a  dignity  which  was  afterwards  conferred, 
tlso  by  election,  on  his  son  Augustus  III.     That  change  of  re- 
igion  did  not  prevent  the  Electors  of  Saxony  from  remaining 
it  the  head  of  the   Protestant  interest  in  the  Diet  of  the  Em- 
pire, as  they  had  given  them  assurance  that  they  would  make 
no  innovations  in  the  religion  of  their  country,  and  that  they 
would  appoint  a  council  entirely  composed  of  Protestant  mem- 
bers, for  administering  the  affairs  of  the  Empire.     These  prin- 
ces, however,  lost  part  of  their  influence  ;  and   so   far  was  the 
crown  of  Poland,  which  was  purely  elective,  from  augmenting 
the  greatness  and  real  power  of  their  house,  that,  on  the  con- 
trary, it  served  to  exhaust  and  enfeeble  Saxony,  by  involving  it 
in  ruinous  wars,  which  ended  in  the   desolation  of  that  fine 
country,  the  alienation  of  the  Electoral  domains,  and  the  increase 
uf  the  debts  and  burdens  of  the  state. 


22  CHAPTER  Vllf. 

If  the  royal  digriity  of  Poland  was  prejudicial  to  the  House 
of  Saxony,  it  was  by  no  means  so  with  that  of  Prussia,  which 
.he  House  of  Brandenburg  acquired  soon  after.  The  Elector, 
John  Sigismund,  on  succeeding  to  the  dutchy  of  Prussia,  had 
acknowledged  himself  a  vassal  and  tributary  of  the  crown  of 
Poland.  His  grandson,  Frederic  William,  took  advantage  of 
the  turbulent  situation  in  which  Poland  was  placed  at  the  time 
of  the  invasion  of  Charles  X.  of  Sweden,  to  obtain  a  grant  of 
the  sovereignty  of  Prussia,  by  a  treaty  which  he  concluded  with 
that  Eepublic  at  Welau  (19th  September  1657.)  Poland,  in  re- 
nouncing the  territorial  rights  which  she  exercised  over  Ducal 
Prussia,  stipulated  for  the  reversion  of  these  same  rights,  on  the 
extinction  of  the  male  line  of  the  Electoral  House  of  Brandenburg. 

Frederic  L,  the  son  and  successor  of  Frederic  William,  having 
become  sovereign  of  Ducal  Prussia,  thought  himself  authorized 
to  assum^e  the  royal  dignity.  The  elevation  of  his  cousin-ger- 
man,  the  Prince  of  Oi'ange,  to  the  throne  of  Britain,  and  of  his 
next  neighbour,  the  Elector  of  Saxony,  to  the  sovereignty  oi 
Poland,  tempted  his  ambition,  and  induced  him  to  enter  into  a 
negotiation  on  the  subject  with  the  Court  of  Vienna.  The  Em- 
peror Leopold  promised  to  acknowledg-e  him  as  King  of  Prussia, 
on  account  of  a  supply  of  ten  thousand  men  which  Frederic  pro- 
mised to  furnish  him  in  the  war  of  the  Spanish  Succession, 
which  was  then  commencing.  To  remove  all  apprehensions  on 
the  part  of  Poland,  who  might  perhaps  offer  some  opposition, 
the  Elector  signed  a  compact,  bearing,  that  the  royal  dignity  oi 
Prussia  should  in  no  way  prejudice  the  rights  and  possession  ol 
the  King  and  States  of  Poland  over  Polish  Prussia ;  that  neither 
he  nor  his  successors  should  attempt  to  found  claims  on  that  part 
of  Prussia ;  and  that  the  clause  in  the  treaty  of  Welau,  which 
secured  the  reversion  of  the  territorial  right  of  Ducal  Prussia, 
on  the  extinction  of  the  heirs-male  of  Frederic  William,  should 
remain  in  full  force  and  vigour,  never  to  be  infringed  by  the  new 
King  or  any  of  his  successors.  After  these  different  conventions, 
the  Elector  repaired  to  Koningsberg,  where  he  w^as  proclaimed 
King  of  Prussia  (18th  January  1701.)  It  is  worthy  of  remark, 
that  on  the  ceremony  of  his  coronation,  he  put  the  crown  on  his 
own  head. 

All  the  European  powers  acknowledged  the  new  King,  with 
the  exception  of  France  and  Spain,  with  whom  he  soon  engaged 
in  war.  The  Teutonic  Knights,  bearing  in  mind  their  ancient 
claims  over  Prussia,  deemed  it  their  duty  to  support  them  by  a 
protest,  and  their  example  was  followed  by  the  Court  of  Eome. 
The  opinion  which  the  author  of  the  Memoirs  of  Brandenburg 
delivers  on  this  event  is  very  remarkable.     "  Frederic,"  says  he 


PERIOD  vn.     A.  D.  1648 — 1713.  S8 

"  was  flattered  with  nothing  so  much,  as  the  externals  of  royalty, 
the  pomp  of  ostentation,  and  a  certain  whimsical  self-conceit, 
which  was  pleased  with  making  others  feel  their  inferiority. 
What  at  first  was  the  mere  offspring  of  vanity,  turned  out  in  the 
end  to  be  a  masterpiece  of  policy.  The  royal  dignity  liberated 
the  House  of  Brandenburg  from  that  yoke  of  servitude  under 
which  Austria  had,  till  then,  held  all  the  Princes  of  Germany. 
It  was  a  kind  of  bait  which  Frederic  held  out  to  all  his  posterity, 
and  by  which  he  seemed  to  say,  I  have  acquired  for  you  a  title, 
render  yourselves  worthy  of  it;  I  have  laid  the  foundation  of 
your  greatness,  yours  is  the  task  of  completing  the  structure." 
In  fact  Austria,  by  promoting  the  House  of  Brandenburg,  seemed 
to  have  injured  her  own  greatness.  In  the  very  bosom  of  the 
Empire,  she  raised  up  a  new  power,  which  afterwards  became 
her  rival,  and  seized  every  opportunity  of  aggrandizement  at  her 
expense. 

As  for  the  Electoral  House  of  Brunswick-Luneburg,  it  suc- 
ceeded, as  we  have  observed,  to  the  throne  of  Great  Britain,  in 
virtue  of  a  fundamental  law  of  that  monarchy,  which  admitted 
females  to  the  succession  of  the  crown.  Ernest  Augustus,  the 
first  Elector  of  the  Hanoverian  line,  had  married  Sophia, 
daughter  of  the  Elector  Palatine  Frederic  V.,  by  the  Princess 
Elizabeth  of  England,  daughter  of  James  I.,  King  of  Great 
Britain.  An  act  of  the  British  Parliament  in  1701,  extended 
the  succession  to  that  Princess,  then  Electress-Dowager  of  Han- 
over, and  to  her  descendants,  as  being  nearest  heirs  to  the  throne, 
according  to  the  order  established  by  former  acts  of  Parliament,  i 
limiting  the  succession  to  Princes  and  Princesses  of  the  Protes- 
tant line  only.  The  Electress  Sophia,  by  that  act,  was  called  to 
the  succession,  in  case  William  III.,  and  Anne,  the  youngest 
daughter  of  James  II.,  left  no  issue  ;  an  event  which  took  place 
in  1714,  on  the  death  of  Anne,  who  had  succeeded  William  in 
the  kingdom  of  Great  Britain.  The  Electress  Sophia  was  not 
alive  at  that  time,  having  died  two  months  before  that  princess. 
George,  Elector  of  Hanover,  and  son  of  Sophia  by  Ernest  Au- 
gustus, then  ascended  the  British  throne  (Aug.  12,  1714,)  to  the 
exclusion  of  all  the  other  descendants  of  Elizabeth,  who,  though 
they  had  the  right  of  precedence,  were  excluded  by  being  Catho- 
lics, in  virtue  of  the  Acts  of  Parliament  1689,  1701,  1705. 

The  war  of  the  Spanish  Succession  had  occasioned  great 
changes  in  Italy.  Spain,  after  having  been  long  the  leading 
power  in  that  country,  gave  place  to  Austria,  to  wham  the  trea- 
ties of  Utrecht  and  Baden  had  adjudged  the  dutchy  of  Milan, 
the  kingdoms  of  Naples  and  Sardinia,  and  the  ports  of  Tuscany. 
To  these  she  added  the  dutchy  of  Mantua,  of  which  the  Empe- 


S4  CHAPTER  VIIT. 

ror  Joseph  I.  had  dispossessed  Duke  Charles  IV.  of  the  House 
of  Gonzaga,  for  having  espoused  the  cause  of  France  in  the 
War  of  the  Succession.  The  Duke  of  Mirandola  met  with  a 
similar  fate,  as  the  ally  of  the  French  in  that  war.  His  dutchy 
was  confiscated  by  the  Emperor,  and  sold  to  the  Duke  of  Modena. 
This  new  aggrandizement  of  Austria  in  Italy  excited  the  jea- 
lousy of  England,  lest  the  princes  of  that  house  should  take  oc- 
casion to  revive  their  obsolete  claims  to  the  royalty  of  Italy  and 
the  Imperial  dignity ;  and  it  was  this  which  induced  the  Court 
of  London  to  favour  the  elevation  of  the  Dukes  of  Savoy,  in 
order  to  counterbalance  the  power  of  Austria  in  Italy. 

The  origin  of  the  House  of  Savoy  is  as  old  as  the  beginning 
of  the  eleventh  century,  when  we  find  a  person  named  Berthold 
in  possession  of  Savoy,  at  that  time  a  province  of  the  kingdom 
of  Burgundy  or  Aries.  The  grandson  of  Berthold  married 
Adelaide  de  Suza,  daughter  and  heiress  of  Mainfroi,  Marquis 
of  Italy  and  Lord  of  Suza.  This  marriage  brought  the  House 
of  Savoy  considerable  possessions  in  Italy,  such  as  the  Marqui- 
sate  of  Suza,  the  Dutchy  of  Turin,  Piedmont,  and  Val  d'Aoste 
Humbert  II.  Count  of  Savoy,  conquered  the  province  of  Taren- 
tum.  Thomas,  one  of  his  successors,  acquired  by  marriage  the 
barony  of  Faucigny.  Amadous  V.  was  invested  by  the  Empe- 
ror Henry  VII.  in  the  city  and  county  of  Asti.  Amadeus  VII. 
received  the  voluntary  submission  of  the  inhabitants  of  Nice, 
which  he  had  dismembered  from  Provence,  together  with  the 
counties  of  Tenda  and  Boglio  ;  having  taken  advantage  of  the 
intestine  dissensions  in  that  country,  and  the  conflict  between 
the  factions  of  Duras  and  Anjou,  who  disputed  the  succession 
of  Naples  and  the  county  of  Provence.  Amadeus  VIII.  pur- 
chased from  Otho  de  Villars  the  county  of  Geneva,  and  was 
created,  by  the  Emperor  Sigismund,  first  Duke  of  Savoy  (Feb. 
19,  1416.) 

The  rivalry  which  had  subsisted  between  France  and  Austria 
since  the  end  of  the  fifteenth  century,  placed  the  House  of  Savoy 
in  a  situation  extremely  difficult.  Involved  in  the  wars  which 
had  arisen  between  these  two  powers  in  Italy,  it  became  of  ne- 
cessity more  than  once  the  victim  of  political  circumstances. 
Duke  Charles  III.  having  allied  himself  with  Charles  V.,  was 
deprived  of  his  estates  by  France  ;  and  his  son  Philibert,  noted 
for  his  exploits  in  the  campaigns  of  Flanders,  did  not  obtain  re- 
stitution of  them  until  the  peace  of  Chateau  Cambresis.  The 
Dukes  Charles  Emanuel  II.,  and  Victor  Amadeus  II.,  experi- 
enced similar  indignities,  in  the  wars  which  agitated  France 
and  Spain  during  the  seventeeth  century,  and  which  were  ter- 
minated by  the  treaties  of  the  Pyrenees  and  Turin  in  the  years 


PERIOD  VII.     A.  D.  1648 — 1713.  25 

1659,  1696.  In  the  war  of  the  Spanish  Succession,  Victor 
Amadeus  II.  declared  at  first  for  his  son-in-law,  Philip  King  of 
Spain,  even  taking  upon  himself  the  chief  command  of  the 
French  army  in  Italy  ;  but  afterwards,  perceiving  the  danger  of 
his  situation,  and  seduced  by  the  advantageous  offers  which  the 
Emperor  made  him,  he  thought  proper  to  alter  his  plan,  and 
joined  the  grand  alliance  against  France.  Savoy  and  Piedmont 
again  became  the  theatre  of  the  war  between  France  and  Italy. 
The  French  having  undertaken  the  siege  of  Turin,  the  Duke 
and  Prince  Eugene  forced  their'army  in  its  entrenchments  be- 
fore the  place,  and  obliged  them  to  abandon  Italy.  The  Empe- 
ror granted  the  Duke  the  investiture  of  the  different  estates 
which  he  had  secured  to  him,  on  his  accession  to  the  grand 
alliance  ;  such  as  Montferrat,  the  provinces  of  Alexandria  and 
Valencia,  the  country  between  the  Tanaro  and  the  Po,  the  Lu- 
melline,  Val  Sessia,  and  the  Vigevanesco ;  to  be  possessed  by 
him  and  his  male  descendants,  as  fiefs  holding  of  the  Emperor 
and  the  Empire. 

The  peace  of  Utrecht  confirmed  these  possessions  to  the  Duke  ; 
and  England,  the  better  to  secure  the  equilibrium  of  Italy  and 
Europe,  granted  him,  by  that  treaty,  the  royal  dignity,  with  the 
island  of  Sicily,  which  she  had  taken  from  Spain.  That  island 
was  ceded  to  liim  under  the  express  clause,  that,  on  the  extinc- 
tion of  the  male  line  of  Savoy,  that  kingdom  should  revert  to 
Spain.  By  the  same  treaty  they  secured  to  the  male  descen- 
dants of  that  house,  the  right  of  succession  to  the  Spanish  mon- 
archy; and  that  clause  was  confirmed  by  a  solemn  law  passed 
in  the  Cortes  of  Spain,  and  by  subsequent  treaties  concluded  be- 
tween these  powers  and  Europe.  The  duke  v/as  crowned  King 
of  Sicily  at  Palermo  (Dec.  21,  1713,)  by  the  archbishop  of  that 
city ;  and  the  only  persons  who  refused  to  acknowledge  him  in 
that  new  capacity  were  the  Emperor  and  the  Pope. 

In  proportion  as  France  increased,  Spain  had  declined  m 
power,  in  consequence  of  the  vices  of  her  government,  the  fee- 
bleness of  her  princes,  and  the  want  of  qualifications  in  their 
ministers  and  favourites.  At  length,  under  the  reign  of  Charles 
II.,  the  weakness  of  that  monarchy  was  such,  that  France  de 
spoiled  her  with  impunity,  as  appears  by  those  cessions  she  was 
obliged  to  make  by  the  treaties  of  Aix-la-Chapelle,  Nimeguen, 
and  Ryswick.  Charles  II.  was  the  last  prince  of  the  Spanish 
line  of  the  house  of  Austria.  At  his  death  (Nov.  1700,)  a  long 
and  bloody  war  ensued  about  the  succession,  as  we  have  already 
related.  Two  competitors  appeared  for  the  crown.  Philip  of 
Anjou,  grandson  of  Louis  XIV.,  had  on  his  side  the  will  of 
Charles  II.,  the  efforts  of  his  grandfather,  and  the  wishes  of  the 

VOL.   TJ.  ^ 


26  CHAPTER  VIII. 

Spanish  nation.  Charles  of  Austria,  younger  son  of  the  Empe^ 
ror  Leopold  I.,  was  supported  by  a  formidable  league,  which 
political  considerations  and  a  jealousy  of  the  other  powers  had 
raised  against  France. 

Philip,  who  had  been  placed  on  the  throne  by  the  Spaniards, 
had  already  resided  at  Madrid  for  several  years,  when  the  Aus- 
trian prince,  his  rival,  assisted  by  the  allied  fleet,  took  possession, 
of  Barcelona  (Oct.  9,  1705,)  where  he  established  his  capita\ 
The  incessant  defeats  which  France  experienced  at  'this  period, 
obliged  Philip  twice  to  abando"ii  his  capital,  and  seek  his  safety 
in  flisfht.  He  owed  his  restoration  for  the  first  time  to  Marsha' 
Berwick,  and  the  victory  which  that  general  gained  over  the 
allies  near  Almanza,  in  New  Castillo  (April  25,  1707.)  The 
^■'chduke  having  afterwards  advanced  as  far  as  Madrid,  the 
Uuke  de  Vendome  undertook  to  repulse  him.-  That  General, 
in  conjunction  wdth  Philip  V.,  defeated  the  allies,  who  were 
commanded  by  General Stahremberg,  near  Villa  Viciosa  (Dec, 
10,  1710.]  These  two  victories  contributed  to  establish  Philip 
on  his  throne.  The  death  of  Joseph  I.,  which  happened  soon 
after,  and  the  elevation  of  his  brother,  the  Archduke  Charles,  to 
the  Imperial  throne  and  the  crowns  of  Hungary  and  Bohemia, 
accelerated  the  conclusion  of  the  peace  of  Utrecht,  by  which  the 
Spanish  monarchy  was  preserved  to  Philip  V.  and  his  descen- 
dants. They  deprived  him,  however,  in  virtue  of  that  treaty,  ot 
the  Netherlands  and  the  Spanish  possessions  in  Italy,  such  as 
the  Milanois,  the  ports  of  Tuscany,  and  the  kingdoms  of  Naples, 
Sicily,  and  Sardinia. 

The  conditions  which  England  had  exacted  at  the  treaty  ot 
Utrecht,  to  render  effectual  the  renunciation  of  Philip  V.  to  the 
crown  of  France,  as  well  as  that  of  the  French  princes  to  the 
monarchy  of  Spain,  having  made  h  necessary^  to  assemble  the 
Cortes  or  States-General,  Philip  took  advantage  of  that  circum- 
stance to  change  the  order  of  succession  which  till  then  had  sub- 
sisted in  Spain,  and  which  was  known  by  the  name  of  the  Cas- 
tilian  Succession.  A  law  was  passed  at  the  Cortes  (1713,)  by 
which  it  was  ordained  that  females  should  never  be  admitted  to 
the  crown,  except  in  default  of  the  male  line  of  Philip  ;  that  the 
male  heirs  should  succeed  according  to  the  order  of  primogeni- 
ture ;  that,  failing  the  male  line  of  that  prince,  the  crown  shoula 
fall  to  the  eldest  daughter  of  the  last  reigning  king,  and  her  de- 
scendants ;  and,  failing  these,  to  the  sister  or  nearest  relation  ol 
the  last  king  ;  always  keeping  in  force  the  right  of  primogeniture, 
and  the  preference  of  the  male  heirs  in  the  order  of  succession. 

France,  by  the  sixtieth  article  of  the  treaty  of  the  Pyrenees, 
havmg  renounced  the  protection  of  Portugal,  the  war  between 


PERIOD  vn,     A.  D.  1648 — 1713.  27 

Spain  and  this  latter  power  was  resumed  with  new  vigour. 
Alphonso  VI.,  King  of  Portugal,  finding  himself  abandoned  by 
his  allies,  resolved  to  throw  himself  on  the  favour  of  England. 
The  English  granted  him  supplies,  in  virtue  of  a  treaty  which 
he  concluded  with  them  (June  23cl  1661,)  and  by  which  ha 
ceded  to  them  the  city  of  Tangiers  in  Africa,  and  the  isle  of 
Bombay  in  India.  France,  who  well  knew  that  it  Avas  her  inte- 
rest not  to  abandon  Portugal  entirely,  rendered  her  likewise  all 
the  secret  assistance  in  her  power.  The  Count  Schomberg 
passed  over  to  that  kingdom  with  a  good  number  of  officers,  and 
several  companies  of  French  troops.  The  Portuguese,  under 
the  command  of  that  General,  gained  two  victories  over  the 
Spaniards  at  Almexial,  near  Estremos  (1663,)  and  at  Montes 
Claros,  or  Villa  Viciosa  (1665,)  which  re-established  their  affairs, 
■and  contributed  to  secure  the  independence  of  Portugal.  When 
the  war  took  place  about  the  Right  of  Devolutio7i,  the  Coui  t  of 
Lisbon  formed  a  new  alliance  with  France.  Spain  then  learned 
that  it  would  be  more  for  her  interest  to  abandon  her  projects  of 
conquering  Portugal,  and  accept  the  proposals  of  accommodation 
■tendered  to  her  by  the  mediation  of  England. 

It  happened,  in  the  meantime,  that  Alphonso  VI.,  a  prince  of 
vicious  habits,  and  of  a  ferocious  and  brutal  temper,  was  de- 
throned (Nov.  23d  1667,)  and  the  Infant  Don  Pedro,  his  brother, 
was  declared  Regent  of  the  kingdom.  The  Queen  of  Alphonso, 
JVIary  of  Savoy,  who  had  managed  the  whole  intrigue,  obtained, 
from  the  Court  of  Rome,  a  dissolution  of  her  marriage  with  Al- 
phonso, and  espoused  the  Regent,  her  brother-in-law  (April  2d 
1668.)  That  prince  would  willingly  have  fulfilled  the  engage- 
ments which  his  predecessor  had  contracted  with  France,  but 
the  English  Ambassador  having  drawn  over  the  Cortes  of  Por 
tugal  to  his  interests,  the  Regent  was  obliged  to  make  peace  with 
iSpain,  which  was  signed  at  Lisbon,  February  13th  1668.  The 
•Spaniards  there  treated  with  the  Portuguese  as  a  sovereign  and 
independent  nation.  They  agreed  to  make  mutual  restitution 
of  all  they  had  taken  possession  of  during  the  war,  with  the 
exception  of  the  city  of  Ceuta  in  Africa,  which  remained  in  the 
power  of  Spain.  The  subjects  of  both  states  obtained  the  resto- 
ration of  all  property  alienated  or  confiscated  during  the  war. 
That  peace  was  followed  by  another,  which  Portugal  concluded 
at  the  Hague,  with  the  United  Provinces  of  the  Netherlands 
i(July  31st  1669,)  who  were  permitted  to  retain  the  conquests 
they  had  made  from  the  Portuguese  in  the  East  Indies. 

The  Court  of  Lisbon  was  soon  after  involved  in  the  war  of 
the  Spanish  Succession  which  divided  all  Europe.  Don  Pedro 
U.  had  at  first  acknowledged  Philip  V.,  and  even  contracted  an 


28  CHAPTER  vni, 

alliance  with  him ;  hut  yielding  afterwards  to  the  influence  of 
the  British  minister,  as  well  as  of  the  Court  of  Vienna,  he  joined 
the  Grand  Alliance  against  France.^  The  Portuguese  made  a 
distinguished  figure  in  that  war,  chiefly  during  the  campaign  of 
1706,  when,  with  the  assistance  of  the  English,  they  penetrated 
as  far  as  Madrid,  and  there  proclaimed  Charles  of  Austria. 

The  Portuguese,  by  one  of  the  articles  of  their  treaty  of 
accession  to  the  grand  alliance,  had  been  given  to  expect,  that 
certam  important  places  in  Spanish  Estremadura  and  Gallicia 
would  be  ceded  to  them  at  the  general  peace.  That  engage- 
ment was  never  fulfilled.  The  treaty  of  peace,  concluded  at 
Utrecht  (6th  February  1715,)  between  Spain  and  Portugal,  had 
ordered  the  mutual  restitution  of  all  conquests  made  during  the 
war.  The  treaty  of  Lisbon,  of  1668,  was  then  renewed,  and 
especially  the  articles  which  stipulated  for  the  restitution  of  all 
confiscated  property.  The  only  point  which  they  yielded  to  the 
Portuguese,  was  that  which  referred  to  the  colony  of  St.  Sacra- 
ment, which  the  Portuguese  governor  of  Eio  Janeiro  had  estab- 
lished (1680)  on  the  northern  bank  of  the  river  La  Plata,  in  South 
America,  which  was  opposed  by  Spain.  By  the  sixth  article  of 
her  treaty  with  Portugal,  she  renounced  all  her  former  claims 
and  pretensions  over  the  above  colony. 

A.  similar  dispute  had  arisen  between  France  and  Portugal, 
relative  to  the  northern  bank  of  the  Amazons  river,  and  the  terri- 
tories about  Cape  North,  in  America,  which  the  French  main- 
tained belonged  to  them,  as  making  part  of  French  Guiana. 
The  Portuguese  having  constructed  there  the  fort  of  Macapa,  it 
was  taken  by  the  French  gove^»^.rr  of  Cayenne.  By  the  treaty 
of  Utrecht,  it  was  agreed  between  France  and  Portugal  that 
both  banks  of  the  river  Amazons  should  belong  entirely  to  Por- 
tugal ;  and  that  France  should  renounce  all  right  and  preten- 
sions whatever  to  the  territories  of  Cape  North,  lying  between 
the  rivers  Amazons  and  Japoc,  or  Vincent  Pinson,  in  South 
America. 

In  England,  an  interregnum  of  eleven  years  followed  the  death 
of  Charles  I.  Oliver  Cromwell,  the  leader  of  the  Independent 
party,  pissed  two  Acts  of  Parliament,  one  of  which  abolished 
the  House  of  Lords,  and  the  other  the  royal  dignity.  The 
kingly  office  was  suppressed,  as  useless  to  the  nation,  oppressive 
and  dangerous  to  the  interests  and  liberties  of  the  people  ;  and  it 
was  decided,  that  whoever  should  speak  of  the  restoration  of  the 
Stuarts,  should  be  regarded  as  a  traitor  to  his  country.  The  king- 
dom being  thus  changed  into  a  republic,  Cromwell  took  on  himself 
the  chief  direction  of  aflTairs.  This  ambitious  man  was  not  long 
in  monopolizing  the  sovereign  authority  (1653.)     He  abolished 


PERIOD  vn.     A.  D.  164S— 1713.  29 

the  Parliament  called  the  Rump,  which  had  conferred  on  him  his 
power  and  military  commission.  He  next  assembled  a  new 
Parliament  of  the  three  kingdoms,  to  the  number  of  one  hun- 
dred and  forty-four  members ;  and  he  took  care  to  have  it  com- 
posed of  individuals  whom  he  knew  to  be  devoted  to  his  inte- 
rests. Accordingly,  they  resigned  the  whole  authority  into  his 
hands.  An  act,  called  the  Act  of  Government,  conferred  on 
him  the  supreme  authority,  under  the  title  of  Protector  of 
the  three  kingdoms  ;  with  the  privilege  of  making  war  and 
peace,  and  assembling  every  three  years  a  Parliament,  which 
should  exercise  the  legislative  power   conjunctly  with  himself. 

Cromwell  governed  England  with  a  more  uncontrolled  power 
than  that  of  her  kings  had  been.  In  1651,  he  passed  the  fa- 
mous Navigation  Act,  which  contributed  to  increase  the  com- 
merce of  Great  Britain,  and  gave  her  marine  a  preponderance 
over  that  of  all  other  nations.  That  extraordinary  man  raised 
England  in  the  estimation  of  foreigners,  a-nd  made  his  Protec- 
torate respected  by  all  Europe.  After  a  war  which  he  had  car- 
ried on  against  the  Dutch,  he  obliged  them,  by  the  treaty  of 
Westminster  (1654,)  to  lower  their  flag  to  British  vessels,  and 
to  abandon  the  cause  of  the  Stuarts.  Entering  into  alliance 
with  France  against  Spain,  he  took  from  the  latter  the  island 
of  Jamaica  (1655)  and  the  port  of  Dunkirk  (1658.) 

After  his  death,  the  Generals  of  the  army  combined  to  restore 
the  old  Parliament,  called  the  Rump.  Richard  Cromwell,  who 
succeeded  his  father,  soon  resigned  the  Protectorate  (April  22, 
1659.)  Dissensions  having  arisen  between  the  Parliament  and 
the  Generals,  Monk,  who  was  governor  of  Scotland,  marched 
to  the  assistance  of  the  Parliament ;  and  after  having  defeated 
the  Independent  Generals,  he  proceeded  to  assemble  a  new  Par- 
liament composed  of  both  Houses.  No  sooner  was  this  Par- 
liament assembled,  than  they  decided  for  the  restoration  of  the 
Stuarts,  in  the  person  of  Charles  II.   (18th  May  1660.) 

That  Prince  made  his  public  entry  into  London,  May  29, 
1660.  His  first  care  was  to  take  vengeance  on  those  who  had 
been  chiefly  instrumental  in  the  death  of  his  father.  He  re- 
scinded all  Acts  of  Parliament  passed  since  the  year  1633 ;  and 
re-established  Episcopacy  both  in  England  and  Scotland.  In- 
stigated by  his  propensity  for  absolute  power,  and  following  the 
maxims  which  he  had  imbibed  from  his  predecessors,  he  adopt- 
ed measures  which  were  opposed  by  the  Parliament ;  and  even 
went  so  far  as  more  than  once  to  pronounce  their  dissolution. 
His  reign,  in  consequence,  was  a  scene  of  faction  and  agitation, 
which  proved  the  forerunners  of  a  new  revolution.'*  The  ap- 
pellation of  Whigs  and   Tories,  so  famous  in  English  history 

3# 


30  CHAPTEB  Vlil. 

took  its  rise  in  his  reigfn.  "We  could  almost,  however,  pardou 
Charles  for  his  faults  and  irregularities,  in  consideration  of  the 
benevolence  and  amiableness  of  his  character.  But  it  was 
otherwise  with  James  IL,  who  succeeded  his  brother  on  the 
British  throne  (16th  Feb.  1685.)  That  Prince  alienated  the 
minds  of  his  subjects  by  his  haughty  demeanour,  and  his  extra- 
vagant zeal  for  the  church  of  Rome,  and  the  Jesuits  his  confes- 
sors. Scarcely  was  he  raised  to  the  throne,  when  he  undertook 
to  change  the  religion  of  his  country,  and  to  govern  still  more 
despotically  than  his  brother  had  done.  Encotiraged  by  Louis 
XIV.,  who  offered  him  money  and  troops,  he  was  the  first  King 
of  England  that  had  kept  on  foot  an  army  in  time  of  peace, 
and  caused  the  legislature  to  decide,  that  the  King  can  dispense 
with  the  laws.  Availing  himself  of  this  decision,  he  dispen-sed 
with  the  several  statutes  issued  against  the  Catholics  ;  he  per- 
mitted them  the  public  exercise  of  their  religion  within  the 
three  kingdoms,  and  gradually  gave  them  a  preference  in  all 
places  of  trust.  At  length,  he  even  solicited  the  Pope  to  send 
a  nuncio  to  reside  at  his  Court ;  and  on  the  arrival  of  Ferdi- 
nand Dada,  to  whom  Innocent  XI.  had  confided  this  mission, 
he  gave  him  a  public  and  solemn  entry  to  Windsor  (1687.) 
Seven  bishops,  who  had  refused  to  publish  the  declaration  re- 
specting Catholics,  were  treated  as  guilty  of  sedition,  and  im 
prisoned  by  his  order  in  the  Tower. 

During  these  transactions,  the  Queen,  Mary  of  Modena,  hap- 
pened to  be  delivered  of  a  Prince  (20th  June,  1688,)  known  in 
history  by  the  name  of  the  Pretender.  As  her  Majesty  had 
had  no  children  for  more  than  six  years,  it  was  not  difficult  to 
gain  credit  to  a  report,  that  the  young  Prince  was  a  suppositi- 
tious child.  James  II. ,  by  his  first  marriage  with  Anne  Hyde. 
daughter  of  the  Earl  of  Clarendon,  had  two  daughters,  both  Pro- 
testants ;  and  regarded,  till  then,-  as  heirs  to  the  crown.  Mary, 
the  eldest,  was  married  to  "William,  Prince  of  Orange,  and  Anne, 
the  youngest,  to  George,  younger  son  of  Frederic  III.,  King 
of  Denmark.  The  English  Protestants  had  flattered  themselves 
that  all  their  wrongs  and  misfortunes  would  terminate  with  the 
death  of  James  11.  and  the  accession  of  the  Princess  of  Orange 
to  the  throne.  Being  disappointed  in  these  expectations  by  the 
birth  of  the  Prince  of  Wales ^  their  only  plan  was  to  dethrone 
the  King.  The  Tories  even  joined  with  the  Whigs  in  offering 
the  crown  to  the  Prince  of  Orange.  William  III.,  supported  by 
the  Dutch  fleet,  made  a  descent  on  England,  and  landed  fifteen 
thousand  men  at  Torbay  (5th  November,  1688,)  without  ex- 
periencing the  smallest  resistance  on  the  part  of  James,  who, 
•^ing  himself  abandoned  by  th«  military,  took  the  resoluiion 


PERIOD  VII.      A.  D.  1648—1713.  31 

of  withdrawing  to  France,  where  he  had  already  sent  his  Queen 
and  his  son,  the  young  Prince  of  Wales.  He  afterwards  re- 
turned to  Ireland,  where  he  had  a  strong  party  ;  hut  being  con- 
quered by  William  at  the  battle  of  the  Boyne  (11th  July  1690,) 
he  was  obliged  to  return  to  France,  where  he  ended  his  days. 

Immediately  after  the  flight  of  James,  the  Parliament  of  Eng- 
land declared,  by  an  act,  that  as  he  had  violated  the  funda- 
mental law  of  the  constitution,  and  abandoned  the  kingdom,  the 
throne  was  become  vacant.  They,  therefore,  unanimously  con- 
ferred the  crown  on  William  III.,  Prince  of  Orange,  and  Mary 
his  spouse  (Feb.  22,  16S9  ;)  intrusting  the  administration  of  af- 
fairs to  the  Prince  alone.  In  redressing  the  grievances  of  the 
nation,  they  set  new  limits  to  the  royal  authority.  By  an  Act, 
called  the  Declaration  of  Rights,  they  decreed,  that  the  King 
could  neither  suspend,  nor  dispense  with  the  laws ;  that  he 
could  institute  no  new  courts,  nor  levy  money  under  any  pre- 
tence whatever,  nor  maintain  an  army  in  time  of  peace,  without 
the  consent  of  Parliament.  Episcopacy  was  abolished  in  Scot- 
land (1694,)  and  the  liberty  of  the  press  sanctioned.  The  suc- 
cession of  the  crown  was  regulated  by  different  Acts  of  Parlia- 
ment, one  of  which  fixed  it  in  the  Protestant  line,  to  the  exclu- 
sion of  Catholics.  Next  after  William  and  Mary  and  their 
descendants,  was  the  Princess  Anne  and  her  descendants.  A 
subsequent  Act  conferred  the  succession  on  the  House  of 
Hanover  (1701,)  under  the  following  conditions: — That  the 
King  or  Queen  of  that  family,  on  their  accession  to  the  throne, 
should  be  obliged  to  conform  to  the  High  Church,  and  the  laws 
of  1689 ;  that  without  the  consent  of  Parliament,  they  should 
never  engage  the  nation  in  any  war  for  the  defence  of  their  he- 
reditary dominions,  nor  go  out  of  the  kingdom ;  and  that  they 
should  never  appoint  foreigners  to  offices  of  trust. 

The  rivalry  between  France  and  England  assumed  a  higher 
tone  under  the  reign  of  William  III. ;  and  was  increased  by  the 
powerful  efforts  which  France  was  making  to  improve  her  ma- 
rine, and  extend  her  navigation  and  her  commerce.  The  colo- 
nies which  she  founded  in  America  and  the  Indies,  by  bringing 
the  two  nations  more  into  contact,  tended  to  foment  their  jea- 
lousies, and  multiply  subjects  of  discord  and  division  between 
them.  From  that  time  England  eagerljt  seized  every  occasion 
for  occupying  France  on  the  Continent  of  Europe;  and  the 
whole  policy  of  William,  as  we  have  seen,  had  no  other  aim 
than  to  thwart  the  ambitious  views  of  Louis  XIV.  If  this 
rivalry  excited  and  prolonged  wars  which  inflicted  many  cala- 
mities on  the  world,  it  became  likewise  a  powerful  stimulus  for 
the  contending  nations  to  develope  their  whole  faculties ;  to 


32  CHAPTER  vm. 

make  the  highest  attainments  in  the  sciences,  of  which  they  were 
susceptible  ;  and  to  carry  arts  and  civilization  to  the  remotest 
countries  in  the  world. 

William  III.  was  succeeded  by  Anne  (1702.)  It  was  in  ner 
reign  that  the  grand  union  between  England  and  Scotland  was 
accomplished,  which  incorporated  them  into  one  kingdom,  by 
means  of  the  same  order  of  succession,  and  only  one  Parliament. 
That  Princess  had  the  honour  of  maintaining  the  balance  oi 
Europe  against  France,  by  the  clauses  which  she  got  inserted 
into  the  treaty  of  Utrecht.  At  her  death  (1st  August  1714,) 
the  throne  of  Great  Britain  passed  to  George  I.,  the  Elector  of 
Hanover,  whose  mother,  Sophia,  derived  her  right  to  the  British 
throne  from  James  I.,  her  maternal  grandfather. 

The  power  and  political  influence  of  the  United  Provinces  of 
the  Netherlands  had  increased  every  day,  since  Spain  acknow- 
ledged their  independence  by  the  treaty  of  Munster  (1648.) 
Their  extensive  commerce  to  all  parts  of  the  globe,  and  theii 
flourishing  marine,  attracted  the  admiration  of  all  Europe. 
Sovereigns  courted  their  alliance  ;  and  the  Hague,  the  capital 
of  the  States-General,  became,  in  course  of  time,  the  centre  of 
European  politics.  That  Republic  was  the  rival  of  England  in 
all  her  commercial  relations ;  and  she  ventured  also  to  dispute 
with  her  the  empire  of  the  sea,  by  refusing  to  lower  her  flag  to 
British  vessels.  These  disputes  gave  rise  to  bloody  wars  be- 
tween the  two  States,  in  which  the  famous  Dutch  Admirals, 
Tromp  and  De  Ruyter,  distinguished  themselves  by  their  mari- 
time exploits.  De  Ruyter  entered  the  Thames  with  the  Dutch 
fleet  (1667,)  advanced  to  Chatham,  burnt  the  vessels  in  the  roads 
there,  and  threw  the  city  of  London  into  great  consternation. 
Nevertheless,  by  the  treaties  of  Breda  (1667)  and  Westminster 
(1654,)  they  agreed  that  their  vessels  and  fleets  should  lower 
their  flag  when  they  met  either  one  or  more  ships  carrying  the 
British  flag,  and  that  over  all  the  sea,  from  Cape  Finisterre  in 
GaJlicia,  to  the  centre  of  Statt  in  Norway;  but  the  States-Gen- 
eral preserved  Surinam,  which  they  had  conquered  during  the 
war  ;  and  at  the  treaty  of  commerce  which  was  signed  at  Breda, 
tlie  navigation  act  was  modified  in  their  favour,  in  so  far  that 
the  produce  and  merchandise  of  Germany  were  to  be  considered 
as  productions  of  the  ^oil  of  the  Republic. 

It  was  during  these  wars  that  a  change  took  place  with  regard 
to  the  Stadtholdership  of  the  United  Provinces.  William  II., 
Prince  of  Orange,  had  alienated  the  hearts  of  his  subjects  by  his 
attempts  against  their  liberties ;  and  having,  at  his  death,  left 
his  wife,  the  daughter  of  Charles  I.  of  England,  pregnant  of  a 
son  (1650,)  the  States-General  took  the  opportunity  of  leaving 


PERIOD  VII.     A.  D.  1648—17  J3.  33 

that  ofRce  vacant,  and  taking  upon  themselves  the  direction  of 
affairs.  The  suspicions  which  the  House  of  Orange  had  excited 
in  Cromwell  by  their  alliance  with  the  Stuarts,  and  the  resent- 
ment of  John  de  Witt,  Pensionary  of  Holland,  against  the  Stadt- 
holder,  caused  a  secret  article  to  be  added  to  the  treaty  of  West- 
minster, by  which  the  States  of  Holland  and  West  Friesland 
engaged  never  to  elect  William,  the  posthumous  son  of  William 
II.,  to  be  Stadtholder  ;  and  never  to  allow  that  the  office  of 
Captain-General  of  the  Republic  should  be  conferred  on  him. 
John  de  Witt  likewise  framed  a  regulation  known  by  the  name 
of  the  Perpetual  Edict,  which  separated  the  Stadtholdership 
from  the  office  of  Captain  and  Admiral-General,  and  which 
enacted,  that  these  functions  should  never  be  discharged  by  the 
same  individual.  Having  failed,  however,  in  his  efforts  to  make 
the  States-General  adopt  this  regulation,  which  they  considered 
as  contrary  to  the  union,  John  de  Witt  contented  himself  with 
obtaining  the  approbation  of  the  States  of  Holland,  who  even 
went  so  far  as  to  sanction  the  entire  suppression  of  the  Stadt- 
holdership. 

Matters  continued  in  this  situation  until  the  time  when  Louis 
XIV.  invaded  Holland.  His  alarming  progress  caused  a  revo- 
lution in  favour  of  the  Prince  of  Orange.  The  ruling  faction,  at 
the  head  of  which  was  John  de  Witt,  then  lost  the  good  opinion 
of  the  people.  He  was  accused  of  having  neglected  military 
affairs,  and  left  the  State  without  defence,  and  a  prey  to  the  en- 
emy. The  first  signal  of  ^evolution  was  given  by  the  small 
town  of  Veere  in  Zealand.  William  was  there  proclaimed 
Stadtholder  (June  1672,)  and  the  example  of  Veere  was  soon 
followed  by  all  the  cities  of  Holland  and  Zealand.  Every  where 
the  people  compelled  the  magistrates  to  confer  the  Stadtholder- 
ship on  the  young  Prince.  The  Perpetual  Edict  was  abolished, 
and  the  Stadtholdership  confirmed  to  William  III.  by  the  As- 
sembly of  States.  They  even  rendered  this  dignity,  as  well  as 
the  office  of  Captain-General,  hereditary  to  all  the  male  and 
legitimate  descendants  of  the  Prince.  It  was  on  this  occasion 
that  the  two  brothers,  John  and  Cornelius  de  Witt,  were  massa- 
cred by  the  people  assembled  at  the  Hague. 

After  William  was  raised  to  the  throne  of  Great  Britain,  he 
still  retained  the  Stadtholdership,  with  the  offices  of  Captain 
and  Admiral-General  of  the  Republic.  England  and  Holland, 
united  under  the  jurisdiction  of  the  same  prince,  acted  thence- 
forth in  concert  to  ihwart  the  ambitious  designs  of  Louis  XIV. ; 
and  he  felt  the  effects  of  their  power  chiefly  in  the  war  of  the 
Spanish  Succession,  when  England  and  the  States-General  made 
extraordinary  efforts  to  maintain  the  balance  of  the  Continent 


34  CHAPTER  vin. 

which  they  thought  in  danger.  It  was  in  consideration  of  these 
efforts  that  they  guaranteed  to  the  Dutch,  by  the  tre%ty  of  the 
Grand  Alliance,  as  well  as  by  that  of  Utrecht,  a  barrier  against 
France,  which  was  more  amply  defined  by  the  Barrier  Treaty, 
signed  at  Antwerp  (15th  November  1715,)  under  the  mediation 
and  guaranty  of  Great  Britain.  The  provinces  and  towns  of 
the  Netherlands,  both  those  that  had  been  possessed  by  Charles 
[I.,  and  those  that  France  had  surrendered  by  the  treaty  of 
Utrecht,  were  transferred  to  the  Emperor  and  the  House  of 
Austria,  on  condition  that  they  should  never  be  ceded  under  any 
title  whatever;  neither  to  France,  nor  to  any  other  prince  except 
the  heirs  and  successors  of  the  House  of  Austria  in  Germany. 
It  was  agreed  that  there  should  always  be  kept  in  the  Low 
Countries  a  body  of  Austrian  troops,  from  thirty  to  thirty-five 
thousand  men,  of  which  the  Emperor  was  to  furnish  three-fifths, 
and  the  States-General  the  remainder.  Finally,  the  States- 
General  were  allowed  a  garrison,  entirely  composed  of  their  own 
troops,  in  the  cities  and  castles  of  Namur,  Tournay,  Menin, 
Furnes,  AVarneton,  and  the  fortress  of  Kenock  ;  while  the  Em- 
peror engaged  to  contribute  a  certain  sum  annually  for  the  main- 
tenance of  these  troops. 

Switzerland,  since  the  confirmation  of  her  liberty  and  inde- 
pendence by  the  peace  of  Westphalia,  had  constantly  adhered 
to  the  system  of  neutrality  which  she  had  adopted  ;  and  taken 
no  part  in  the  broils  of  her  neighbours,  except  by  furnishing 
troops  to  those  powers  with  whom  she  was  in  alliance.  The 
fortunate  inability  which  was  the  natural  consequence  of  her 
union,  pointed  out  this  line  of  conduct,  and  even  induced  the 
European  States  to  respect  the  Helvetic  neutrality. 

This  profound  peace,  which  S\vitzerland  enjoyed  by  means  of 
that  neutrality,  was  never  interrupted,  except  by  occasional  do- 
mestic quarrels,  which  arose  from  the  difference  of  their  religious 
opinions.  Certain  families,  from  the  canton  of  Schweitz,  had 
fled  to  Zurich  on  account  of  their  religious  tenets,  and  had  been 
protected  by  that  republic.  This  stirred  up  a  war  (1656)  be- 
tween the  Catholic  cantons  and  the  Zurichers,  with  their  allies 
the  Bernese  ;  but  it  was  soon  terminated  by  the  peace  of  Baden, 
which  renewed  the  clauses  of  the  treaty  of  1531,  relative  to  these 
very  subjects  of  dispute.  Some  attempts  having  afterwards  been 
made  against  liberty  of  conscience,  in  the  county  of  Toggenburg, 
by  the  Abbe  of  St.  Gall,  a  new  war  broke  ont  (1712,)  between 
five  of  the  Catholic  cantons,  and  the  two  Protestant  cantons  of 
Zurich  and  Berne.  These  latter  expelled  the  Abbe  of  St.  Gall 
from  his  estates,  and  dispossessed  the  Catholics  of  the  county  of 
Baden,  with  a  considerable  part  of  the  free  bailiwicks  which 


PERIOD  m.    A.  D.  1648—1713.  35 

were  granted  to  them  by  the  treaty  concluded  at  Araw.  The 
Abbe  then  saw  himself  abandoned  by  the  Catholic  cantons  ;  and 
it  was  only  in  virtue  of  a  treaty,  which  he  concluded  with  Zu- 
rich and  Berne  (1718,)  that  his  successor  obtained  his  restoration 

Sweden,  during  the  greater  part  of  this  period,  supported  the 
fir^t  rank  among  the  powers  of  the  North.  The  vigour  of  her 
government,  added  to  the  weakness  of  her  neighbours,  and  the 
important  advantages  which  the  treaties  of  Stolbova,  Stumsdori, 
Bromsbro,  and  Westphalia  had  procured  her,  secured  this  supe- 
riority ;  and  gave  her  the  same  influence  in  the  North  that 
France  held  in  the  South.  Christina,  the  daughter  of  Gustavus 
Adolphus,  held  the  reins  of  government  in  Sweden  about  the 
middle  of  the  seventeenth  century  ;  but  to  gratify  her  propensity 
for  the  fine  arts,  she  resolved  to  abdicate  the  crown  (1654.) 
Charles  Gustavus,  Count  Palatine  of  Deux-Ponts,  her  cousin- 
german,  succeeded  her,  under  the  title  of  Charles  X.  Being 
nurtured  in  the  midst  of  arms,  and  ambitious  only  of  wars  and 
battles,  he  was  anxious  to  distinguish  himself  on  the  throne. 
John  Casimir,  King  of  Poland,  having  provoked  him,  by  protest- 
ing against  his  accession  to  the  crown  of  Sweden,  Charles  made 
this  an  occasion  of  breaking  the  treaty  of  Stumsdorf,  which  was 
still  in  force,  and  invaded  Poland.  Assisted  by  Frederic  Wil- 
liam, the  Elector  of  Brandenburg,  whom  he  had  attached  to  his 
interests,  he  gained  a  splendid  victory  over  the  Poles  near  War- 
saw (July  1656.)  At  that  crisis,  the  fate  of  Poland  would  have 
been  decided,  if  the  Czar,  Alexis  Michaelovitz,  who  was  also  at 
war  with  the  Poles,  had  chosen  to  make  common  cause  with 
her  new  enemies  ;  but  Alexis  thought  it  more  for  his  advantage 
to  conclude  a  truce  with  the  Poles,  and  attack  the  Swedes  in  Li- 
vonia, Ingria,  and  Carelia.  The  Emperor  Leopold  and  the  King 
cf  Denmark  followed  the  example  of  the  Czar ;  and  the  Elector 
of  Brandenburg,  after  obtaining  the  sovereignty  of  the  dutchy  of 
Prussia,  by  the  treaty  which  he  concluded  with  Poland  at  We- 
lau,  acceded  in  like  manner  to  this  league, — the  object  of  which 
was  to  secure  the  preservation  of  Poland,  and  maintain  the  equi- 
librium of  the  North. 

Attacked  by  so  many  and  such  powerful  enemies,  the  King 
of  Sweden  determined  to  withdraw  his  troops  from  Poland,  and 
direct  his  principal  force  against  Denmark.  Having  made  him- 
self master  of  Holstein,  Sleswick,  and  Jutland,  he  passed  the 
Belts  on  the  ice  (January  1658)  with  his  army  and  artillery,  and 
advanced  towards  the  capital  of  the  kingdom.  This  bold  step 
intimidated  the  Danes  so  much,  that  they  submitted  to  those  ex- 
ceedingly severe  conditions  which  Charles  made  them  sign  at 
Roschild  (February  1658.)     Scarcely  was  this  treaty  concluded. 


36  CHAPTER  vm. 

when  the  King  of  Sweden  broke  it  anew ;  and  under  different 
pretexts,  laid  siege  to  Copenhagen.  His  intention  was,  if  he  had 
carried  that  place,  to  raze  it  to  the  ground,  to  annihilate  the 
kingdom  of  Denmark,  and  fix  his  residence  in  the  province  of 
Schonen,  where  he  could  maintain  his  dominion  over  the  North 
and  the  Baltic.  The  besieged  Danes,  however,  made  a  vigor- 
ous defence,  and  they  were  encouraged  by  the  example  of  Fred- 
eric III.,  who  superintended  in  person  the  whole  operations  of 
the  siege ;  nevertheless,  they  must  certainly  have  yielded,  had 
not  the  Dutch,  who  were  alarmed  for  their  commerce  in  the  Bal- 
tic, sent  a  fleet  to  the  assistance  of  Denmark.  These  republi- 
cans fought  an  obstinate  naval  battle  with  the  Swedes  in  the 
Sound  (29th  October  1658.)  The  Swedish  fleet  was  repulsed, 
and  the  Dutch  succeeded  in  relieving  Copenhagen,  by  throwing 
in  a  supply  of  provisions  and  ammunition. 

The  King  of  Sweden  persisted,  nevertheless,  in  his  determi- 
nation to  reduce  that  capital.  He  was  not  even  intimidated  by 
the  treaties  which  France,  England,  and  Holland,  had  conclu- 
ded at  the  Hague,  for  maintaining  the  equilibrium  of  the  North  ; 
but  a  premature  death,  at  the  age  of  thirty-eight,  put  an  end  to 
his  ambitious  projects  (23d  February  1660.)  The  regents  who 
governed  the  kingdom  during  the  minority  of  his  son  Charles 
XL,  immediately  set  on  foot  negotiations  with  all  the  powers 
that  were  in  league  against  Sweden.  By  the  peace  which  they 
concluded  at  Copenhagen  with  Denmark  (July  3,  1660,)  they 
surrendered  to  that  crown  several  of  their  late  conquests  ;  re- 
serving to  themselves  only  the  provinces  of  Schonen,  Bleckin- 
gen,  Halland,  and  Bohus.  The  Duke  of  Holstein-Gottorp,  the 
protege  of  Charles  X.,  was  secured  by  that  treaty  in  the  sove- 
reignty of  that  part  of  Sleswick,  which  had  been  guaranteed  to 
him  by  a  former  treaty  concluded  at  Copenhagen.  The  war 
with  Poland,  and  her  allies  the  Elector  of  Brandenburg  and  the 
Emperor,  v/as  terminated  by  the  peace  of  Oliva  (May  3d  1660.) 
The  King  of  Poland  gave  up  his  pretensions  to  the  crown  of 
Sweden ;  while  the  former  ceded  to  the  latter  the  provinces  of 
Livonia  and  Esthonia,  and  the  islands  belonging  to  them  ;  to  be 
possessed  on  the  same  terms  that  had  been  agreed  on  at  the 
treaty  of  Stumsdorf  in  1635.  The  Duke  of  Courland  was  re-es- 
tablished in  his  dutchy,  and  the  sovereignty  of  ducal  Prussia 
confirmed  to  the  House  of  Brandenburg.  Peace  between  Swe- 
den and  Russia  was  concluded  at  Kardis  in  Esthonia  ;  while 
the  latter  power  surrendered  to  Sweden  all  the  places  which 
she  had  conquered  in  Livonia. 

Sweden  was  afterwards  drawn  into  the  war  against  the  Dutch 
by  Louis  XIV.,  Avhen  she  experienced  nothing  but  disasters. 


PERIOD  VII.     A.  D.  1648—1713.  3? 

She  was  deprived  of  all  her  provinces  in  the  Empire,  and  only 
regained  possession  of  them  in  virtue  of  the  treaties  of  Zeil, 
Nimeg-uen,  St.  Germain-en-Laye,  Fountainbleau,  and  Lunden 
(1679,)  which  she  concluded  successively  with  the  powers  in 
league  against  France.  Immediately  after  that  peace,  a  revolu- 
tion happened  in  the  government  of  Sweden.  The  abuse  which 
the  nobles  made  of  their  privileges,  the  extravagant  authority 
claimed  by  the  senate,  and  the  different  methods  which  the 
grandees  employed  for  graduall}^  usurping  the  domains  of  the 
crown,  had  excited  the  jealousy  of  the  other  orders  of  the  state. 
[t  is  alleged,  that  John  Baron  Gillenstiern,  had  suggested  to 
Charles  XL  the  idea  of  taking  advantage  of  this  discontent  to 
augment  the  royal  authority,  and  humble  the  arrogance  of  the 
senate  and  the  nobility.  In  compliance  with  his  advice,  the 
King  assembled  the  Estates  of  the  kingdom  at  Stockholm  (16S0  ;) 
and  having  quartered  some  regiments  of  his  own  guards  in  the 
city,  he  took  care  to  remove  such  of  the  nobles  as  might  give 
the  greatest  cause  of  apprehension.  An  accusation  was  lodged 
at  the  Diet  against  those  ministers  who  had  conducted  the  ad- 
ministration during  the  King's  minority.  To  them  were  attri- 
buted the  calamities  and  losses  of  the  state,  and  for  these  they 
were  made  responsible.  The  Senate  was  also  implicated.  They 
were  charged  with  abusing  their  authority  ;  and  it  was  proposed 
that  the  Stales  should  make  investigation,  whether  the  powers 
which  the  Senate  had  assumed  were  conformable  to  the  laws  of 
the  kingdom.  The  States  declared  that  the  King  was  not  bound 
by  any  other  form  of  government  than  that  w^hich  the  constitu- 
tion prescribed  ;  that  the  Senate  formed  neither  a  fifth  order,  nor 
an  intermediate  power  between  the  King  and  the  States  ;  and 
that  it  ought  to  be  held  simply  as  a  Council,  with  whom  the 
King  might  consult  and  advise. 

A  College  of  Reufiion,  so  called,  was  also  established  at  this 
Diet,  for  the  purpose  of  making  inquiry  as  to  the  lands  granted, 
sold,  mortgaged,  or  exchanged  by  preceding  Kings,  either  in 
Sweden  or  Livonia ;  with  an  offer  on  the  part  of  the  crown  to 
reimburse  the  proprietors  for  such  sums  as  they  had  originally 
paid  for  them.  This  proceeding  made  a  considerable  auginen- 
tation  to  the  revenues  of  the  crown  ;  but  a  vast  number  of  pro- 
prietors were  completely  ruined  by  it.  A  subsequent  diet  went 
even  further  than  that  of  1680.  They  declared,  by  statute,  that 
though  the  King  was  enjoined  to  govern  his  dominions  accord- 
ing to  the  laws,  this  did  not  take  from  him  the  power  of  altering 
these  laws.  At  length  the  act  of  1693  decreed  that  the  King 
was  absolute  master,  and  sole  depository  of  the  sovereign  power; 
vvithout  being  responsible  for  his  actions  to  any  power  on  earth; 

VOL.    TT.  4 


'^  CHAPTER  Vm. 

and  that  he  was  entitled  to  govern  the  kingdom  according  to  his 

will  and  pleasure. 

It  was  in  virtue  of  these  different  enactments  and  concessions, 
that  the  absolute  power  which  had  been  conferred  on  Charles 
XI.,  was  transmitted  to  the  hands  of  his  son  Charles  XII.,  who 
was  only  fifteen  years  of  age  when  he  succeeded  his  father 
(April  1,  1697.)  By  the  abuse  which  this  Prince  made  of  these 
dangerous  prerogatives,  he  plunged  Sweden  into  an  abyss  of 
troubles;  and  brought  her  down  from  that  high  rank  which  she 
had  occupied  in  the  political  system  of  Europe,  since  the  reign 
of  Gustavus  Adolphus.  The  youth  of  Charles  appeared  to  his 
n  'ighbours  to  afford  them  a  favourable  opportunity  for  recover- 
ing what  they  had  lost  by  the  conquests  of  his  predecessors. 
Augustus  II.,  King  of  Poland,  being  desirous  to  regain  Livonia, 
and  listening  to  the  suggestions  of  a  Livonian  gentleman,  named 
John  Patkul,  who  had  been  proscribed  in  Sweden,  he  set  on  foot 
a  negotiation  with  the  courts  of  Russia  and  Copenhagen  ;  the 
result  of  which  was,  a  secret  and  offensive  alliance  concluded 
between  these  three  powers  against  Sweeden  (1699.)  Peter  the 
Great,  who  had  just  conquered  Azoff  at  the  mouth  of  the  Don, 
and  equipped  his  first  fleet,  was  desirous  also  to  open  up  the  coasts 
of  the  Baltic,  of  which  his  predecessors  had  been  dispossessed  by 
Sweden.  War  accordingly  broke  out  in  the  course  of  the  year 
1700.  The  King  of  Poland  invaded  Livonia  ;  the  Danes  fell 
upon  Sleswick,  where  they  attacked  the  Duke  of  Holstein-Got- 
torp,  the  ally  of  Sweden  ;  while  the  Czar,  at  the  head  of  an 
army  of  eighty  thousand  men,  laid  siege  to  the  city  of  Narva. 

The  King  of  Sweden,  attacked  by  so  many  enemies  at  once, 
directed  his  first  efforts  against  Denmark,  where  the  danger  ap- 
pear-id  most  pressing.  Assisted  b)''  the  fleets  of  England  and 
Holland,  who  had  guaranteed  the  last  peace,  he  made  a  descent 
on  the  Isle  of  Zealand,  and  advanced  rapidly  towards  Copenha- 
gen. This  obliged  Frederic  IV.  to  conclude  a  special  peace 
with  him  at  Travendahl  (Aug.  18,  1700,)  by  which  that  prince 
consented  to  abandon  his  allies,  and  restore  the  Duke  of  Holstein- 
Gottorp  to  the  same  state  in  which  he  had  been  before  the  war. 
Next  du'ecting  his  march  against  the  Czar  in  Esthonia,  the  young 
King  forced  the  Russians  from  their  entrenchments  before  Narva 
(Nov,  30,)  and  made  prisoners  of  all  the  general  and  principal 
officers  of  the  Russian  army  ;  among  others,  Field-Marshal 
General  the  Duke  de  Croi. 

Having  thus  got  clear  of  the  Russians,  the  Swedish  Monarch 
then  attacked  King  Augustus,  who  had  introduced  a  Saxon  army 
intoPoland,  without  being  authorized  by  that  Republic.  Charles 
vanquished  that  prince  in  the  three  famous  battles  of  Riga  (1701,^ 


PERIOD  VII.     A.  D.  1648—1713.  99 

Clissau  (1702,)  and  Pultusk  (1703;)  and  obliged  the  Poles  to 
depose  him,  and  elect  in  his  place  Stanislaus  Lecksinski,  Pa- 
latine of  Posen,  and  a  protege  of  his  own.  Two  victories  which 
were  gained  over  the  Saxons,  and  their  allies  the  Russians,  the 
one  at  Punie  (1704,)  and  the  other  at  Fraustadt  (1706,)  caused 
Stanislaus  to  be  acknowledged  by  the  whole  Republic  of  Po- 
land, and  enabled  the  King  of  Sweden  to  transfer  the  seat  of 
war  to  Saxony.  Having  marched  through  Silesia,  without  the 
previous  authority  of  the  Court  of  Vienna,  he  took  Leipzic, 
and  compelled  Augustus  to  sign  a  treaty  of  peace  at  Alt-Ran 
stadt,  by  which  that  Prince  renounced  his  alliance  with  the 
Czar,  and  acknowledged  Stanislaus  legitimate  King  of  Poland. 
John  Patkul  being  delivered  up  to  the  King  of  Sweden,  ac- 
cording to  an  article  in  that  treaty,  was  broken  on  the  wheel, 
for  having  been  the  principal  instigator  of  the  war. 

The  prosperity  of  Charles  XIL,  had  now  come  to  an  end 
From  this  time  he  experienced  only  a  series  of  reverses,  which 
were  occasioned  as  much  by  his  passion  for  war,  as  by  his  in- 
discretions, and  the  unconquerable  obstinacy  of  his  character. 
The  Russians  had  taken  advantage  of  his  long  sojourn  in  Po- 
land and  Saxony,  and  conquered  the  gTeater  part  of  Ingria  and 
Livonia.  The  Czar  had  now  advanced  into  Poland,  where  he 
had  demanded  of  the  Poles  to  declare  an  interregnum,  and  elect 
a  new  King.  In  this  state  of  matters,  the  King  of  Sweden  left 
Saxony  to  march  against  the  Czar  ;  and  compelled  him  to  eva- 
cuate Poland,  and  retire  on  Smolensko.  Far  from  listenino-, 
however,  to  the  equitable  terms  of  peace  which  Peter  offered 
him,  he  persisted  in  his  resolution  to  march  on  to  Moscow,  in 
the  hope  of  dethroning  the  Czar,  as  he  had  dethroned  Augus- 
tus, The  discontent  which  the  innovations  of  the  Czar  had  ex- 
cited in  Russia,  appeared  to  Charles  a  favourable  opportunity 
for  effecting  his  object;  but  on  reaching  the  neighbourhood  ol 
Mohilew,  he  suddenly  changed  his  purpose,  and,  instead  of  di- 
recting his  route  towards  the  capital  of  Russia,  he  turned  to 
the  right,  and  penetrated  into  the  interior  of  the  Ukraine,  in 
order  to  meet  Mazeppa,  Hetman  of  the  Cossacs,  who  had  offered 
.0  join  him  with  all  his  troops.  Nothing  could  have  been 
more  imprudent  than  this  determination.  By  thus  marchino 
into  the  Ukraine,  he  separated  himself  from  General  Lewen- 
haupt,  who  had  brought  him,  according  to  orders,  a  powerful  re^ 
mforcenient  fromLivonia ;  and  trusted  himself  among  a  fickle  and 
inconstant  people,  disposed  to  break  faith  on  every  opportunity. 

This  inconsiderate  step  of  Charles  did  not  escape  the  pene- 
tration of  the  Czar,  who  knew  well  how  to  profit  by  it.  Putting 
himself  at  the  head  of  a  chosen  body,  he  intercepted  General 


W  CHAPTER  VIII. 

Lewenhaupt,  and  joined  him  at  Desna,  two  miles  from  Pro- 
poisk,  in  the  Palatinate  of  Mscislaw.  The  battle  which  he 
fought  with  that  general  (October  9,  1708,)  was  most  obstinate, 
and,  by  the  confession  of  the  Czar,  the  first  victory  which  the 
Russians  had  gained  over  regular  troops.  The  remains  of 
Lewenhaupt's  army,  having  joined  the  King  in  the  Ukraine, 
Charles  undertook  the  siege  of  Pultowa,  situated  on  the  banks 
of  the  Vorsklaw,  at  the  extremity  of  that  province.  It  A^^^as 
near  this  place,  that  the  famous  battle  was  fought  (8th  July, 
1709,)  which  blasted  all  the  laurels  of  the  King  of  Sweden. 
The  Czar  gained  theie  a  complete  victory.  Nine  thousand 
Swedes  were  left  on  ihe  field  of  battle  ;  and  fourteen  thousand, 
who  had  retired  with  General  Lewenhaupt,  towards  Perevo- 
latschna,  between  the  Vorsklaw  and  the  Nieper,  were  made  pri- 
soners of  war,  three  days  after  the  action.  Charles,  accompanied 
by  his  ally  Mazeppa,  saved  himself  with  difficulty  at  Bender  in 
Turkey. 

This  disastrous  route  revived  the  courage  of  the  enemies  of 
Sweden.  The  alliance  was  renewed  between  the  Czar,  Au- 
gustus II.,  and  FredericIV.jKing  of  Denm.ark.  Stanislaus  was 
abandoned.  All  Poland  again  acknowledged  Augustus  II. 
The  Danes  made  a  descent  on  Schonen  ;  and  the  Czar  achieved 
the  conquest  of  Ingria,  Livonia,  and  Carelia.  The  States  that 
were  leagued  against  France  in  the  war  of  the  Spanish  Suc- 
cession, wishing  to  prevent  Germany  from  becoming  the  theatre 
of  hostilities,  concluded  a  treaty  at  the  Hague  (31st  March 
1710,)  by  which  they  undertook,  under  certain  conditions,  to 
guarantee  the  neutrality  of  the  Swedish  provinces  in  Germany, 
as  well  as  that  of  Sleswick  and  Jutland  ;  but  the  King  of  Swe- 
den having  constantly  declined  acceding  to  this  neutrality,  the 
possessions  of  the  Swedes  in  Germany  were  also  seized  arid 
conquered  in  succession.  The  Duke  of  Holstein-Gottorp,  the 
nephew  of  Charles  XII.,  was  involved  in  his  disgrace,  and 
stripped  of  his  estates  by  the  king  of  Denmark  (1714.) 

In  the  midst  of  these  disasters,  the  inflexible  King  of  Swe- 
den persisted  in  prolonging  his  sojourn  at  Bender,  making  re- 
peated efforts  to  rouse  the  Turks  against  the  Russians.  He  did 
not  return  from  Turkey  till  1714,  when  his  affairs  were  already 
totally  ruined.  The  attempts  w^hich  he  then  made,  either  to 
renew  the  war  in  Poland,  or  invade  the  provinces  of  the  Em- 
pire, excited  the  jealousy  of  the  neighbouring  powers.  A  for- 
midable league  was  raised  against  him ;  besides  the  Czar,  the 
Kings  of  Poland,  Denmark,  Prussia,  and  England,  joined  it. 
Stralsund  and  Wismar,  the  only  places  which  Sweden  still  re- 
tained in  Germany,  fell  into  the  hands  of  the  allies ;  while  the 


PERIOD  VU.     A.  D.  1648 — 1713.  41 

Cza^  added  to  these  losses  the  conquest  of  Finland  and  Savolax. 
In  a  situation  so  desperate,  Charles,  by  the  advice  of  his  minis- 
ter, Baron  Gortz,  set  on  foot  a  special  and  secret  negotiation 
with  the  Czar,  which  took  place  in  the  isle  of  Aland,  in  course 
of  the  year  1718.  There  it  was  proposed  to  reinstate  Stanis- 
laus on  the  throne  of  Poland  ;  to  restore  to  Sweden  her  pos- 
sessions in  the  Empire  ;  and  even  to  assist  her  in  conquering 
Norway  ;  by  way  of  compensation  for  the  loss  of  Ingria,  Ca- 
relia,  Livonia,  and  Esthonia,  which  she  was  to  cede  to  the  Czar. 

That  negotiation  was  on  the  point  of  being  finally  closed, 
when  it  was  broken  off  by  the  u«nexpected  death  of  Charles 
XII.  That  unfortunate  prince  was  slain  (December  11th,  1718,) 
at  the  siege  of  Fredericshall  in  Norway,  while  visiting  the 
trenches  ;  being  only  thirty-seven  years  of  age,  and  leaving  the 
affairs  of  his  kingdom  in  a  most  deplorable  state. 

The  new  regency  of  Sweden,  instead  of  remaining  in  friend- 
ship with  the  Czar,  changed  their  policy  entirely.  Baron  de 
Gortz,  the  friend  of  the  late  King,  fell  a  sacrifice  to  the  public 
displeasure,  and  a  negotiation  was  opened  with  the  Court  of 
G.Britain.  A  treaty  of  peace  and  alliance  was  concluded  at 
Stockholm  (Nov.  20,  1719,)  between  Great  Britain  and  Swe- 
den. George  I.,  on  obtaining  the  cession  of  the  dutchies  of 
Bremen  and  Verden,  as  Elector  of  Hanover,  engaged  to  send  a 
strong  squadron  to  the  Baltic,  to  prevent  any  further  invasion 
from  the  Czar,  and  procure  for  Sweden  more  equitable  terms  of 
peace  on  the  part  of  that  Prince.  The  example  of  Great  Bri- 
tain was  soon  followed  by  the  other  allied  powers,  who  were 
anxious  to  accommodate  matters  with  Sweden.  By  the  treaty 
concluded  at  Stockholm  (21st  January,  1720,)  the  King  of 
Prussia  got  the  town  of  Stettin,  and  that  part  of  Pomerania, 
v/hich  lies  between  the  Oder  and  the  Peene.  The  King  of 
Denmark  consented  to  restore  to  Sweden  the  towns  of  Stral- 
sund  and  AVismar,  with  the  isle  of  Rugen,  and  the  part  of  Po- 
merania, which  extends  from  the  sea  to  the  river  Peene.  Swe- 
den, on  ner  side,  renounced  in  favour  of  Denmark,  her  exemp- 
tion from  the  duties  of  the  Sound  and  the  two  Belts,  which  had 
been  guaranteed  to  her  by  former  treaties.  The  Czar  was  the 
only  person  who,  far  from  being  intimidated  by  the  menaces  of 
England,  persisted  in  his  resolution  of  not  maki^  peace  with 
Sweden,  except  on  the  conditions  which  he  had  dictated  to  her. 
The  war  was,  therefore,  continued  between  Russia  and  Sweden, 
during  the  two  campaigns  of  1720  and  1721.  Different  parts 
of  the  Swedish  coast  were  laid  desolate  by  the  Czar,  who  put 
all  to  fire  and  sword,     To  stop  the  progress  of  these  devasta 

tions,  the  Swedes  at  length  consented  to  accept  the  peace  which 

/I  ^ 


42  CHAPTER  vin. 

the  Czar  offered  them,  which  was  finally  sigTied  -at  Nystadt 
(13ih  September  1721.)  Finland  was  surrendered  to  Sweden 
on  condition  of  her  formally  ceding  to  the  Czar  the  provinces  of 
Livonia,  Esthonia,  Ingria,  and  Carelia :  their  limits  to  be  deter- 
mined according  to  the  regulations  of  the  treaty. 

The  ascendency  which  Sweden  had  gained  in  the  North  since 
the  reign  of  Gustavus  Adolphus,  had  become  so  fatal  to  Den- 
mark, that  she  was  on  the  point  of  being  utterly  subverted,  and 
effaced  from  the  number  of  European  powers.  Nor  did  she 
extricate  herself  from  the  disastrous  wars  which  she  had  to  sup- 
port against  Charles  X.,  until  she  had  sacrificed  some  of  her 
best  provinces  ;  such  as  Schonen,  Bieckingen,  Halland,  and  the 
government  of  Bohus,  which  Frederic  III.  ceded  to  Sweden  by 
the  treaties  of  Eoschild  and  Copenhagen.  It  was  at  the  close  of 
this  war  that  a  revolution  happened  in  the  government  of  Denmark. 
Until  that  time,  it  had  been  completely  under  the  aristocracy  of  the 
nobles  ;  the  throne  was  elective  ;  and  all  power  v.-as  con.centrated 
in  the  hands  of  the  senate,  and  the  principal  members  of  the 
nobility.  The  royal  prerogative  was  limited  to  the  command  of 
the  armv,  and  the  presidency  in  the  Senate.  The  King  was 
even  obliged,  by  a  special  capitulation,  in  all  affairs  which  did 
not  require  the  concurrence  of  the  Senate,  to  take  the  advice  of 
four  great  officers  of  the  crown,  viz.  the  Grand  Master,  the 
Chancellor,  the  Marshal,  and  the  Admiral;  who  were  considered 
as  so  many  channels  or  vehicles  of  the  royal  authority. 

The  state  of  exhaustion  to  which  Denmark  was  reduced  at 
the  time  she  made  peace  with  Sweden,  obliged  Frederic  III.  to 
convoke  an  assembly  of  the  States-General  of  the  kingdom. 
These,  which  were  composed  of  three  orders,  viz.  the  nobility, 
the  clerg}',  and  the  burgesses,  had  never  been  summoned  to- 
gether in  that  form  since  the  year  1536.  At  their  mieeting  at 
Copenhagen,  the  two  inferior  orders  reproached  the  nobles  with 
having  been  the  cause  of  all  the  miseries  and  disorders  of  the 
State,  by  the  exorbitant  and  tyrannical  power  which  they  had 
usurped ;  and  what  tended  still  more  to  increase  their  animosity 
against  them,  was  the  obstinacy  with  which  they  maintained 
their  privileges  and  exemptions  from  the  public  burdens,  to  the 
prejudice  of  the  lower  orders.  One  subject  of  discussion  was, 
to  find  a  tax,  the  proceeds  of  which  should  be  applied  to  the  most 
pressing  wants  of  the  State.  The  nobles  proposed  a  duty  on 
articles  of  consumption;  but  under  restrictions  w^th  regard  to 
themselves,  that  could  not  but  exasperate  the  lower  orders.  The 
latter  proposed,  in  testimony  of  their  discontent,  to  let  out  to  the 
highest  bidder  the  fiefs  of  the  crowm,  which  the  nobles  held  at 
'^ents  extremely  moderate.     This  proposal  was  highly  resented 


PERIOD  vn.     A.  D.  164S— 1713.  43 

by  the  nobility,  who  regarded  it  as  a  blow  aimed  at  tneir  rights 
and  properties  ;  and  they  persisted  in  urging  a  tax  on  articles  of 
consumption,  such  as  they  had  proposed.  Certain  uns^arded 
expressions  which  escaped  some  of  the  members  of  the  nobility, 
gave  rise  to  a  tumult  of  indignation,  and  suggested  to  the  two 
leaders  of  the  clerg}^  and  the  burgesses,  viz.  the  bishop  of  Zea- 
land and  the  burgomaster  of  Copenhagen,  the  idea  of  framing 
a  declaration  for  the  purpose  of  rendering  the  crown  hereditary, 
both  in  the  male  and  female  descendants  of  Frederic  III.  It 
was  not  difficult  for  them  to  recommend  this  project  to  their 
respective  orders,  who  flattered  themselves  that,  under  a  heredi- 
tary monarchy,  they  would  enjoy  that  equality  which  was  denied 
them  under  an  aristocracy  of  the  nobles.  The  act  of  this  de- 
claration having  been  approved  and  signed  by  the  two  orders, 
was  presented  in  their  name  to  the  Senate,  who  rejected  it,  on 
the  ground  that  the  States-General  then  assembled,  had  no  right 
to  deliberate  on  that  proposition  ;  but  the  clerg}-  and  the  burges- 
ses, without  being  disconcerted,  went  in  a  body  to  the  King, 
carrying  with  them  the  Act  which  offered  to  make  the  crown 
hereditary  in  his  family.  The  nobles  having  made  a  pretence 
of  wishing  to  quit  the  city  in  order  to  break  up  the  Diet,  care  was 
taken  to  shut  the  doors.  The  members  of  the  Senate  and  the 
nobility  had  then  no  other  alternative  left  than  to  agree  to  the 
resolution  of  the  two  inferior  orders ;  and  the  offer  of  the  crown 
was  made  to  the  King  by  the  three  orders  conjunctly  (13th  October 
1660.)  They  then  tendered  him  the  capitulation,  which  was 
annulled ;  and  at  the  same  time  they  liberated  him  from  the  oath 
which  he  had  taken  on  the  day  of  his  coronation.  A  sort  of 
dictatorship  was  then  conferred  on  him,  to  regulate  the  new  con- 
stitutional charter,  according  to  his  good  pleasure.  All  the  orders 
of  the  State  then  took  a  new  oath  of  fealty  and  homage  to  him, 
while  the  King  himself  was  subjected  to  no  oath  whatever. 
Finally,  the  three  orders  separately  remitted  an  Act  to  the  King, 
declaring  the  crown  hereditary'  in  all  the  descendants  of  Frederic 
III.,  both  male  and  female ;  conferring  on  him  and  his  succes- 
sors an  unlimited  power;  and  granting  him  the  privilege  of 
regulating  the  order  both  of  the  regency  and  the  succession  to 
the  throne. 

Thus  terminated  that  important  revolution,  without  any  dis- 
order, and  without  shedding  a  single  drop  of  blood.  It  was  in 
virtue  of  those  powers  which  the  States  had  conferred  on  him, 
that  the  King  published  what  is  called  the  Royal  Law,  regarded 
a.s  the  only  fundamental  law  of  Denmark.  The  King  was  there 
declared  absolute  sovereign,  above  all  human  laws,  acknowledg- 
ing no  superior  but  God,  and  uniting  in  his  own  person  all  the 


44  CHAPTER  VIU. 

rights  and  prerogatives  of  royalty,  without  any  exception  whatever 
He  could  exercise  these  prerogatives  in  virtue  of  his  own  author 
ity ;  but  he  was  obliged  to  respect  the  Royal  Law  ;  and  he  could 
neither  touch  the  Confession  of  Augsburg,  which  had  been 
adopted  as  the  national  religion,  nor  authorize  any  partition  of 
the  kingdom,  which  was  declared  indivisible;  nor  change  the 
order  of  succession  as  established  by  the  Royal  Law.  That  suc- 
cession was  lineal,  according  to  the  right  of  primogeniture  and 
descent.  Females  were  only  admitted,  failing  all  the  male  issue 
of  Frederic  IIL  ;  and  the  order  in  which  they  were  to  succeed, 
was  defined  with  the  most  scrupulous  exactness.  The  term  of 
majority  was  fixed  at  the  age  of  thirteen  ;  and  it  was  in  the 
power  of  the  reigning  monarch  to  regulate,  by  his  will,  the  tutor- 
age and  the  regency  during  such  minority. 

This  constitutional  law  gave  the  Danish  government  a  vigour 
which  it  never  had  before  ;  the  effects  of  which  Avere  manifested 
in  the  war  which  Christian  V.  undertook  against  Sweden 
(1675,)  in  consequence  of  his  alliance  with  Frederic  William, 
Elector  of  Brandenburg.  The  Danes  had  the  advantage  of  the 
Swedes  both  by  sea  and  land.  Their  fleet,  under  the  command 
of  Niels  Juel,  gained  two  naval  victories  over  them,  the  one 
near  the  Isle  of  Oeland,  and  the  other  in  the  bay  of  Kioge,  on 
the  coast  of  Zealand  (1677.)  That  war  was  terminated  by  the 
peace  of  Lunden  (Oct.  6th  1679,)  which  restored  matters  be- 
tween the  two  nations,  to  the  same  footing  on  which  they  had 
been  before  the  war.  The  severe  check  which  Sweden  re- 
ceived by  the  defeat  of  Charles  Xll..  before  Pultowa,  tended  to 
extricate'  Denmark  from  the  painful  situation  in  which  she  had 
been  placed  with  respect  to  that  power.  The  freedom  of  the 
Sound,  which  Sweden  had  maintained  during  her  prosperity, 
was  taken  from  her  by  the  treaty  of  Stockholm,  and  by  the  ex- 
planatory articles  of  Fredericsburg,  concluded  between  Sweden 
and  Denmark,  (14th  June  1720.)  That  kingdom  likewise  re- 
tained, in  terms  of  the  treaty,  the  possession  of  the  whole  dutchy 
of  Sleswick,  with  a  claim  to  the  part  belonging  to  the  duke  of 
Holstein-Gottorp,  whom  Sweden  was  obliged  to  remove  from 
under  her  protection. 

Poland,  at  the  commencement  of  this  period,  presented  an 
afflicting  spectacle,  under  the  unfortunate  reign  of  John  Casimir, 
the  brother  and  successor  of  Uladislaus  VII.  (1648.)  Distracted 
at  once  b}''  foreign  wars  and  intestine  factions,  she  seemed  every 
moment  on  the  brink  of  destruction  ;  and  while  the  neighbour- 
ing states  were  augmenting  their  forces,  and  strengthening  the 
hands  of  their  governments,  Poland  grew  gradually  weaker  and 
weaker,  and  at  length  degenerated  into  absolute  anarchy.    The 


PERIOD  vn.     A.  D.  1648—1713.  45 

orig-in  of  the  Liberum  Veto  of  the  Poles,  which  allowed  the  op- 
position of  a  single  member  to  frustrate  the  deliberations  of  the 
•.vhole  Diet,  belongs  to  the  reign  of  John  Casimir.  The  first 
that  suspended  the  Diet,  by  the  interposition  of  his  veto,  was 
Schinski,  member  for  Upita  in  Lithuania ;  his  example,  though 
at  first  disapproved,  found  imitators  ;  and  this  foolish  practice, 
which  allowed  one  to  usurp  the  prerogative  of  a  majority,  soon 
passed  into  a  law,  and  a  maxim  of  state. 

Towards  the  end  of  the  reign  of  Uladislaus  VII.  a  murderous 
war  had  arisen  in  Poland,  that  of  the  Cossacs.  This  warlike 
people,  of  Russian  origin,  as  their  language  and  their  religion 
prove,  inhabited  both  banks  of  the  Borysthenes,  beyond  Kiow  ; 
where  they  were  subdivided  into  regiments,  under  the  command 
of  a  general,  called  Hetman ;  and  served  as  a  military  frontier 
for  Poland  against  the  Tartars  and  Turks.  Some  infringements 
that  had  been  made  on  their  privileges,  added  to  the  efforts  which 
the  Poles  had  made  to  induce  their  clerg)^  to  separate  from  the 
Greek  Church,  and  acknowledge  the  supremacy  of  the  Pope,  ex- 
asperated the  Cossacs,  and  engendered  among  them  a  spirit  of 
revolt  (1647.)  Assisted  by  the  Turks  of  the  Crimea,  they  in- 
vaded Poland,  and  committed  terrible  devastations.  The  Poles 
succeeded  from  time  to  time  in  pacifying  them,  and  even  con- 
cluded a  treaty  with  them  ;  but  the  minds  of  both  parties  being 
exasperated,  hostilities  always  recommenced  with  every  new 
offence.  At  length,  their  Hetman,  Chmielniski,  being  hardly 
pressed  by  the  Poles,  took  the  resolution  of  soliciting  the  protec- 
tion of  Russia,  and  concluded  a  treaty  with  the  Czar  Alexis 
Michaelovitz  (Jan.  16,  1654,)  in  virtae  of  which,  Kiow  and  the 
other  towns  of  the  Ukraine,  under  the  power  of  the  Cossacs, 
were  planted  with  Russian  garrisons.  It  was  on  this  occasion 
that  the  Czar  retook  the  city  of  Smolensko  from  the  Poles,  as 
well  as  most  of  the  districts  that  had  been  ceded  to  Poland,  by 
the  treaties  of  Dwilina  and  Viasma.  That  prince  made  also 
several  other  conquests  from  the  Poles ;  he  took  possession  of 
Wilna,  and  several  places  in  Lithuania,  at  the  very  time  when 
Charles  X.  was  invading  Poland,  and  threatening  that  country 
with  entire  destruction.  The  Czar,  however,  instead  of  fol.  ow- 
ing up  his  conquests,  judged  it  more  for  his  interest  to  conclude 
a  truce  with  the  Poles  \|1656,)  that  he  might  turn  his  arms 
against  Sweden. 

The  peace  of  Oliva  put  an  end  to  the  war  between  Poland  and 
Sweden ;  but  hostilities  were  renewed  between  the  Russians 
and  the  Poles,  which  did  not  terminate  till  the  treaty  of  Andrus- 
sov  (Jan.  1667.)  The  Czar  restored  to  the  Poles  a  part  of  his 
conquests  ;  but  he  retained  Smolensko,  Novogorod-Sieverskoe, 


46  cjaLAFfER  vm. 

Tchernigov,  Kiow,  and  all  the  country  of  the  Cossacs,  beyond 
the  Borysthenes  or  Dnieper.  The  Cossacs  on  this  side  the 
river  were  annexed  to  Poland,  and  as  for  those  who  dwelt  near 
the  mouth  of  the  Dnieper,  called  Zaporogs,  it  was  agreed  that 
they  should  remain  under  the  common  jurisdiction  of  the  two 
states  ;  ready  to  serve  against  the  Turks  whenever  circumstances 
might  require  it.  The  wars  of  which  we  have  just  spoken,  were 
attended  with  troubles  and  dissensions,  which  reduced  Poland 
to  the  most  deplorable  condition  during  the  reign  of  John  Casi- 
mir.  That  prince  at  length,  disgusted  with  a  crown  which  he 
liad  found  to  be  composed  of  thorns,  resolved  to  abdicate  the 
throne  (16th  Sept.  1668;)  and  retiring  to  France,  he  there  ended 
his  days. 

Michael  Wiesnouiski,  who  succeeded  John  Casimir,  after  a 
stormy  interregnum  of  seven  months,  had  no  other  merit  than 
that  of  being  descended  in  a  direct  line  from  Coribut,  the  brother 
of  Jagellon,  King  of  Poland.  Jlis  reign  was  a  scene  of  great 
agitation,  and  of  unbridled  anarchy.  Four  diets  were  interrupted 
in  less  than  four  years;  the  war  with  the  Cossacs  was  renewed; 
the  Turks  and  the  Tartars,  the  allies  of  the  Cossacs,  seized  the 
city  of  Kaminiec  (1672,)  the  only  bulwark  of  Poland  against  the 
Ottomans.  Michael,  being  thrown  into  a  state  of  alarm,  con- 
cluded a  disgraceful  peace  with  the  Turks ;  he  gave  up  to  them 
Kaminiec  and  Podolia,  with  their  ancient  limits ;  and  even 
agreed  to  pay  them  an  annual  tribute  of  twenty-two  thousand 
ducats.  The  Ukraine,  on  this  side  the  Borysthenes,  was  aban- 
doned to  the  Cossacs,  who  were  to  be  placed  under  the  protection 
of  the  Turks.  This  trealy  was  not  ratified  by  the  Republic  of 
Poland,  who  preferred  to  continue  the  war.  John  Sobieski, 
Grand  General  of  the  Crown,  gained  a  brilliant  victory  over  the 
Turks  near  Choczim  (Nov.  11th,  1673.)  It  took  place  the  next 
day  after  the  death  of  Michael,  and  determined  the  Poles  to  con- 
fer their  crown  on  the  victorious  General. 

Sobieski  did  ample  justice  to  the  choice  of  his  fellow-citizens. 
By  the  peace  which  he  concluded  at  Zarowno  with  the  Turks 
(26th  Oct.  1676,)  he  relieved  Poland  from  the  tribute  lately  pro 
mised,  and  recovered  some  parts  of  the  Ukraine  ;  but  the  city  o*- 
Kaminiec  was  left  in  the  power  of  the  Ottomans,  with  a  consid* 
erable  portion  of  the  Ukraine  and  Podolia.  Poland  then  entered 
into  an  alliance  with  the  House  of  Austria,  against  the  Porte- 
Sobieski  became  the  deliverer  of  Vienna  ;  he  signalized  himself 
in  the  campaigns  of  1683  and  1684  ;  and  if  he  did  not  gain  any 
important  advantages  over  the  Turks,  if  he  had  not  even  the 
satisfaction  of  recovering  Kaminiec  and  Podolia,  it  must  be  as- 
cribed to  the  incompetence  of  his  means,  and  to  the  disunion  and 


PERIOD  VII.     A.  u.  1648 — 1713.  47 

iridifTerence  of  the  Poles,  who  refused  to  make  a  single  sacrifice 
in  the  cause.  Sobieski  was  even  forced  to  have  recourse  to  the 
protection  of  the  Russians  against  the  Turks;  and  saw  himself 
1  educed  to  the  painful  necessity  of  setting  his  hand  to  the  defi- 
nitive peace  which  was  concluded  with  Russia  at  Moscow  (May 
(»th,  1686,)  by  which  Poland,  in  order  to  obtain  the  alliance  of 
that  power  against  the  Ottomans,  consented  to  give  up  Smolen- 
sko,  Belaia,  Dorogobuz,  Tchernigov,  Starodub,  and  Novogorod- 
Sieverskoe,  with  their  dependencies  ;  as  also  the  whole  territory 
known  by  the  name  of  Little  Russia,  situated  on  the  left  bank  of 
the  Bnrysthenes,  between  that  river  and  the  frontier  Of  Putivli, 
as  far  as  Perevoloczna.  The  city  of  Kiow,  with  its  territory  as 
determined  by  the  treaty,  was  also  included  in  that  cession. 
Finally,  the  Cossacs,  called  Zaporogs  and  Kiidak^  who,  accord- 
ing to  the  treaty  of  Andrussov,  ought  to  have  been  dependencies 
of  these  two  states,  were  reserved  exclusively  to  Russia.  Sobie- 
ski shed  tears  when  he  was  obliged  to  sign  that  treaty  at  Leopold 
'or  Lemberg,)  in  presence  of  the  Russian  ambassadors. 

The  war  with  the  Turks  did  not  terminate  until  the  reign  of 
Augustus  IL  the  successor  of  John  Sobieski.  The  peace  of 
Carlowitz,  which  that  prince  concluded  with  the  Porte  (1699,) 
procured  for  Poland  the  restitution  of  Kaminiec,  as  well  as  that 
part  of  the  Ukraine,  which  the  peace  of  Zarowno  had  ceded  to 
the  Turks. 

Russia  became  every  day  more  prosperous  under  the  princes 
of  the  House  of  Romanow.  She  gained  a  decided  superiority 
over  Poland,  who  had  formerly  dictated  the  law  to  her.  Alexis 
Michaelovitz  not  only  recov^ered  from  the  Poles  what  they  had 
conquered  from  Russia  during  the  disturbances  occasioned  by 
the  two  pretenders  of  the  name  of  Demetrius ;  we  have  already 
observed,  that  he  dispossessed  them  ot  Kiow,  and  all  that  part 
of  the  Ukraine,  or  Little  Russia,  which  lies  on  the  left  bank  of 
the  Borysthenes. 

Theodore  Alexievitz,  the  son  and  successor  of  Alexis  Mi- 
chaelovitz, rendered  his  reign  illustrious  by  the  wisdom  of  his 
administration.  Guided  by  the  advice  of  his  enlightened  mi- 
nister, Prince  Galitzin,  he  conceived  the  bold  project  of  abolish- 
ing the  hereditary  orders  of  the  nobility,  and  the  prerogatives 
that  were  attached  to  them.  These  orders  were  destructive  of 
all  subordination  in  civil  as  well  as  in  military  affairs,  and  gave 
rise  to  a  multitude  of  disputes  and  litigations,  of  which  a  court, 
named  Rozrad,  took  cognizance.  The  Czar,  in  a  grand  assem- 
bly which  he  convoked  a^  Moscow  (1682,)  abolished  the  here- 
ditary rank  of  the  nobles.  He  burnt  the  deeds  and  registers 
by  wh'ch  they  were  atv-ested,  and  obliged  every  noble  family  to 


48  CHAPTER  vm. 

produce  the  extracts  of  these  registers,  which  they  had  in  their 
possession,  that  they  might  be  committed  to  the  flames.  That 
prince  having  no  children  of  his  own,  had  destined  his  youno-er 
brother  Peter  Alexievitz  to  be  his  successor,  to  the  exclusion  of 
John,  his  elder  brrther,  on  account  of  his  incapacity.  But,  on 
the  death  of  Theodore,  both  princes  were  proclaimed  at  orjce  by 
the  military,  and  the  government  was  intrusted  to  the  Princess 
Sophia,  their  elder  sister,  who  assumed  the  title  of  Autocratix 
and  Sovereign  of  all  the  Russias.  Peter,  who  was  the  son  of 
the  second  marriage  of  the  Czar,  was  at  that  time  only  ten 
years  of  aJg'e.  It  was  during  the  administration  of  the  Princess 
Sophia  that  the  peace  of  Moscow  was  concluded  (May  6,  1686  ;) 
one  clause  of  which  contained  an  alliance,  offensive  and  defen- 
sive, between  Russia  and  Poland  against  the  Porte. 

Peter  had  no  sooner  attained  the  age  of  seventeen  than  he 
seized  the  reins  of  government,  and  deposed  his  sister  Sophia, 
whom  he  sent  to  a  convent.  Endowed  with  an  extraordinary 
genius,  this  Prince  became  the  reformer  of  his  Empire,  which, 
under  his  reign,  assumed  an  aspect  totally  new.  By  the  advice 
of  Le  Fort,  a  native  of  Geneva,  who  bad  entered  the  Russian 
service,  and  whom  he  had  received  into  his  friendship  and  con- 
fidence, he  turned  his  attention  to  every  branch  of  the  public 
administration.  The  military  system  was  changed,  and  mo- 
delled after  that  of  the  civilized  nations  of  Europe.  He  found- 
ed the  maritime  power  of  Russia,  improved  her  finances,  en- 
courao-ed  commerce  and  manufactures,  introduced  letters  and 
arts  into  his  dominions,  and  applied  himself  to  reform  the  lav/s, 
to  polish  and  refine  the  manners  of  the  people. 

Peter,  being  in  alliance  with  Poland,  engaged  in  the  war 
against  the  Porte,  and  laid  open  the  Black  Sea  by  his  conquest 
of  the  city  and  port  of  Azoff";  and  it  was  on  this  occasion  that 
he  equipped  his  first  fleet  at  Woronitz.  Azoff  remained  in  his 
possession,  by  an  article  of  the  peace  which  was  concluded  with 
the  Porte  at  Constantinople  (13th  July,  1700.)  About  the  same 
time,  Peter  abolished  the  patriarchal  dignity,  which  ranked  the 
head  of  the  Russian  Church  next  to  the  Czar,  and  gave  him  a 
dangerous  influence  in  the  affairs  of  government.  He  trans- 
ferred the  authority  of  the  patriarch  to  a  college  of  fifteen  per- 
sons, called  the  Most  Holy  Synod,  whose  duty  it  was  to  take 
cognizance  of  ecclesiastical  affairs,  and  in  ge^»eral,  of  all  matters 
which  had  fallen  within  the  jurisdiction  of  the  patriarch,  iro 
members  of  this  college  were  obliged  to  take  the  oath  at  t!"'; 
hands  of  the  Sovereign,  and  to  be  appointed  by  him  on  the  pc  • 
sentation  of  the  Synod. 

Being  desirous  of  seeing  and  examining  in  person  the  iri2:> 


PERIOD  VII.     A.  IX  1648 — 1713.  49 

nets  and  customs  of  other  nations,  he  undertook  two  different 
voyages  into  forei^i  countries,  divested  of  that  pomp  which  is 
the  usual  accompaniment  of  princes.  During  these  travels,  he 
cuhivated  the  arts  and  sciences,  especially  those  connected  with 
commerce  and  navigation ;  he  engaged  men  of  talents  in  his 
services,  such  as  naval  officers,  engineers,  surgeons,  artists,  and 
mechanics  of  all  kinds,  whom  he  dispersed  over  his  vast  do- 
minions, to  instruct  and  improve  the  Russians.  During  his  first 
voyage  to  Holland  and  England,  the  Strelitzes,  the  only  per- 
manent troops  known  in  Russia  before  his  time,  revolted ;  they 
were  first  instituted  by  the  Czar,  John  Basilovitz  IV.  They 
fought  after  the  manner  of  the  Janissaries,  and  enjoyed  nearly 
the  same  privileges.  Peter,  v/ith  the  intention  of  disbanding 
these  seditious  and  undisciplined  troops,  had  stationed  them  on  the 
frontiers  of  Lithuania  ;  he  had  also  removed  them  from  being  his 
own  body-guard,  a  service  which  he  entrusted  to  the  regiments 
raised  by  himself.  This  sort  of  degradation  incensed  the  Stre- 
lazes,  who  took  the  opportunity  of  the  Czar's  absence  to  revolt. 
They  directed  their  march  to  the  city  of  Moscow,  with  the  design 
of  deposing  the  Czar,  and  replacing  Sophia  on  the  throne ;  but 
they  were  defeated  by  the  Generals  Schein  and  Gordon,  who  had 
marched  to  oppose  them.  Peter,  on  his  return,  caused  two 
thousand  of  them  to  be  executed,  and  incorporated  the  rest  among 
his  troops.  He  afterwards  employed  foreign  officers,  either  Ger- 
mans or  Swedes,  to  instruct  the  Russians  in  the  military  art. 

It  was  chiefly  during  the  war  with  Sweden  that  the  Russian 
army  was  organized  according  to  the  European  system.  The 
Czar  took  adv^antage  of  the  check  he  had  sustained  before  Narva 
(Nov.  30,  1700,)  to  accomplish  this  important  change  in  levying, 
equipping,  and  training  all  his  troops  after  the  German  manner. 
He  taught  the  Russians  the  art  of  combating  and  conquering  the 
Swedes  ;  and  while  the  King  of  Sweden  was  bent  on  the  ruin 
of  Augustus  II.,  and  made  but  feeble  efforts  against  the  Czar, 
the  latter  succeeded  in  conquering  Ingria  from  the  Swedes,  and 
.aid  open  the  navigation  of  the  Baltic.  He  took  the  fortress  of 
Noteburg  (1702,)  which  he  afterwards  called  Schlisselburg ;  he 
next  made  himself  master  of  Nyenschantz,  Kopori,  and  Jamp 
(now  Jamburg)  in  Ingria.  The  port  of  Nyenchantz  was  entirely 
razed ;  and  the  Czar  laid  the  foundation  of  St.  Petersburg  in 
one  of  the  neighbouring  islands  of  the  Neva  (May  27, 1703.)  In 
the  middle  of  winter  he  constructed  the  fort  of  Cronschlot  to 
serve  as  a  defence  for  the  new  city,  which  he  intended  to  make 
the  capital  of  his  Empire,  and  the  principal  dep8t  for  the  com- 
merce and  marine  of  Russia.  The  fortune  of  this  ne^v  :hp'  a"i 
vol.it.  5 


50  CHAPTER  vnt. 

was  decided  by  the  famous  battle  of  Pultowa  (July  8,  1709,) 
which  likewise  secured  the  preponderance  of  Russia  in  the  North. 

Charles  XII.,  who  had  taken  refuge  in  Turkey,  used  every 
effort  to  instigate  the  Turks  against  the  Russians ;  and  he  suc- 
ceeded by  dint  of  intrigue.  The  Porte  declared  war  against,  f.he 
Czar  towards  the  end  of  the  year  1710 ;  the  latter  opened  ihe 
campaign  of  1711  by  an  expedition  which  he  undertook  into 
Moldavia  ;  but  having  rashly  penetrated  into  the  interior  of  that 
province,  he  was  surrounded  by  the  Grand  Vizier  near  Falczi 
oil  the  Pruth.  Besieged  in  his  camp  by  an  army  vastly  supe- 
rior to  his  own,  and  reduced  to  the  last  necessity,  he  found  no 
other  means  of  extricating  himself  from  this  critical  situation, 
than  by  agreeing  to  a  treaty,  which  he  signed  in  the  camp  of 
Falczi  (21st  July  1711  ;)  in  virtue  of  which,  he  consented  to  re- 
store to  the  Turks  the  jfortress  of  AzofF,  with  its  territory  and 
its  dependencies.  This  loss  was  amply  compensated  by  the  im- 
portant advantages  which  the  peace  with  Sweden,  signed  at  Ny- 
stadt  (Sept.  10,  1721,)  procured  the  Czar.  It  was  on  this  occa- 
sion that  the  Senate  conferred  on  him  the  epithet  of  Ch-eat,  the 
Father  of  his  Country,  and  Emperor  of  all  the  Russias.  His 
inauguration  to  the  Imperial  dignity  took  place,  October  22d 
1721,  the  xeYy  day  of  the  rejoicing  that  had  been  appointed  for 
the  celebration  of  the  peace.  Peter  himself  put  the  Imperial 
crown  on  his  own  head. 

That  great  prince  had  the  vexation  to  see  Alexis  Czarowitz 
his  son,  and  presumptive  heir  to  the  Empire,  thwarting  all  his 
improvements,  and  caballing  in  secret  with  his  enemies.  Being 
at  length  compelled  to  declare  that  he  had  forfeited  his  right  to 
the  throne,  he  had  him  condemned  to  death  as  a  traitor  (1718.) 
In  consequence  of  this  tragical  event,  he  published  an  Ukase, 
which  vested  in  the  reigning  prince  the  privilege  of  nominating 
his  successor,  and  even  of  changing  the  appointment  whenever 
he  might  judge  it  necessary.  This  arrangement  became  fatal  to 
Russia  ;  the  want  of  a  fixed  and  permanent  order  of  succession 
occasioned  troubles  and  revolutions  which  frequently  distracted 
the  whole  Empire.  This  law,  moreover,  made  no  provision  in 
cases  where  the  reigning  prince  might  neglect  to  settle  the  suc- 
cession during  his  life ;  as  happened  with  Peter  himself,  who 
died  vvdthout  making  or  appointing  any  successor  (Feb.  1725.) 
Catherine  I.,  his  spouse,  ascended  the  throne,  which,  after  a 
reign  of  two  years,  she  transmitted  to  Peter,  son  of  the  unfortu- 
nate Alexis. 

In  Hungary,  the  precautions  that  had  been  taken  by  the  States 
of  Presburg  to  establish  civil  and  religious  liberty  on  a  solid  ba- 
sis, 'lid  not  prevent  disturbances  from  springing  up  in  that  king- 


PERIOD  VU.      A.  V.   1648 ITlcT.  St 

dom.  The  Court  of  Vienna,  perceiving  the  necessity  of  consoli- 
dating its  vast  monarchy,  whose  incoherent  parts  were  suffering 
from  the  want  of  unity,  eagerly  seized  these  occasions  for  ex- 
tending its  power  in  Hungary,  where  it  was  greatly  circumscri- 
bed by  the  laws  and  constitution  of  the  country.  Hence  those 
perpetud  infringements  of  Avhich  the  Hungarians  had  to  com- 
plain ;  and  those  ever-recurring  disturbances  in  which  the  Otto- 
man Turks,  who  shared  with  Austria  the  dominion  of  Hungary, 
were  also  frequently  implicated. 

Transylvania,  as  well  as  a  great  part  of  Hungary,  was  then 
dependent  on  the  Turks.  The  Emperor  Leopold  I.  having 
granted  his  protection  to  John  Kemeny,  Prince  of  Transylvania, 
against  Michael  Abaffi,  a  protege  of  the  Turks,  a  war  between 
the  two  Empires  seemed  to  be  inevitable.  The  Diet  of  Hunga- 
ry, which  the  Emperor  had  assembled  at  Presburg  on  this  sub- 
ject (1662,)  was  most  outrageous.  The  States,  before  they 
would  give  any  opinion  as  to  the  war  against  the  Turks,  de- 
manded that  their  own  grievances  should  be  redressed  ;  and  the 
assembly  separated  without  coming  to  any  conclusion.  The 
Turks  took  advantage  of  this  dissension,  and  seized  the  fortress 
of  Neuheusel,  and  several  other  places.  The  Emperor,  incapa- 
ble of  opposing  them,  and  distrustful  of  the  Hungarian  malecon- 
tents,  had  recourse  to  foreign  aid.  This  he  obtained  at  the  Diet 
of  the  Empire ;  and  Louis  XIV.  sent  him  a  body  of  six  thou- 
sand men,  under  command  of  the  Count  de  Coligni.  An  action 
took  place  (1664)  near  St.  Gothard,  in  which  the  French  signal- 
ized their  bravery.  The  Turks  sustained  a  total  defeat ;  but 
Montecuculi,  the  commander-in-chief  of  the  Imperial  army,  fail- 
ed to  take  advantage  of  his  victory.  A  truce  of  twenty  years 
was  soon  after  concluded  at  Temeswar,  in  virtue  of  which  the 
Turks  retained  Neuheusel,  Waradin,  and  Novigrad.  Michael 
Abaffi,  their  tributary  and  protege,  was  continued  in  Transyl- 
vania ;  and  both  parties  engaged  to  withdraw  their  troops  from 
that  province. 

This  treaty  highly  displeased  the  Hungarians,  as  it  had  been 
concluded  without  their  concurrence.  Their  complaints  against 
the  Court  of  Vienna  became  louder  than  ever.  They  complain- 
ed, especially,  that  the  Emperor  should  entertain  German  troops 
in  the  kingdom  ;  that  he  should  intrust  the  principal  fortresses 
to  foreigners  ;  and  impose  shackles  on  their  religious  liberties. 
The  Court  of  Vienna  having  paid  no  regard  to  these  grievances, 
several  of  the  nobles  entered  into  a  league  for  the  preservation 
of  their  rights  ;  but  they  were  accused  of  holding  correspondence 
with  the  Turks,  and  conspiring  against  the  person  of  the  Empe- 
ror.    The  Counts  Zrini,  Nadaschdi,  Frangepan,  and  Tattenbach 


§8  CHAPTER  Vm. 

were  condemned  as  guilty  of  high  treason  (1671,)  and  bad  their 
heads  cut  off  on  the  scaffold.  A  vast  number  of  the  Protestant 
clerg-y  were  either  banished  or  condemned  to  the  galleys,  as 
implicated  in  the  conspiracy;  but  this  severity,  far  from  abating 
these  disturbances,  tended  rather  to  augment  them.  The  sup- 
pression of  the  dignity  of  Palatine  of  Hungary,  which  took  place 
about  the  same  time,  added  to  the  cruelties  and  extortions  of  all 
kinds  practised  by  the  German  troops,  at  length  raised  a  general 
insurrection,  vdiich  ended  in  a  civil  war  (1677.)  The  insur- 
gents at  first  chose  the  Count  Francis  Wesselini  as  their  leader, 
who  was  afterwards  replaced  by  Count  Emeric  Tekeli.  These 
noblemen  were  encouraged  in  their  enterprise,  and  secretly  abet- 
ted by  France  and  the  Porte. 

The  Emperor  then  found  it  necessary  to  comply ;  and,  in  a 
Diet  which  he  assembled  at  Odenburg,  he  granted  redress  to 
most  of  the  grievances  of  which  the  Hungarians  had  to  com- 
plain ;  but  Count  Tekeli  having  disapproved  of  the  resolutions 
of  this  Diet,  the  civil  war  was  continued,  and  the  Count  soon 
found  means  to  interest  the  Turks  and  the  prince  of  Transylva- 
nia in  his  quarrel.     The  Grand  Vizier  Kara  Mustapha,  at  the 
head  of  the  Ottoman  forces,  came  and  laid  siege  to  Vienna  (July 
14,   16S3.)     A  Polish  army  marched  to  the  relief  of  that  place 
under  their  King,  John   Sobieski,  who  was  joined  by  Charles 
IV.,  Duke  of  Lorraine,  General  of  the  Imperial  troops;  they 
attacked  the  Turks  in  their  entrenchments  before  Vienna,  and 
compelled  them  to  raise  the  siege  (September  12, 1683.)     Every 
thing  then  succeeded  to  the  Emperor's  wish.     Besides  Poland, 
the  Russians  and  the  Republic  of  Venice  took  part  in  this  war 
in  favour  of  Austria,     A  succession  of  splendid  victories,  gained 
by  the   Imperial  generals,  Charles  Duke  of  Lorraine,  Prince 
Louis  of  Baden,  and  Prince  Eugene,  procured  for  Leopold  the 
conquest  of  all  that  part  of  Hungary,  which  had  continued  since 
the  reign  of  Ferdinand  I.  in  the  power  of  the  Ottomans.     The 
fortress  of  Neuheusel  was   taken,  in  consequence  of  the  battle 
which  the  Duke  of  Lorraine  gained  over  the  Turks  at  Strigova 
(1685.)     The  same  General  took  by  assault  the  city  of  Buda, 
the  capital  of  Hungary,  which  had  been  in  possession  of  the 
Turks  since  1541.     The  memorable  victory  of  Mohacz,  gained 
by  the   Imperialists   (1687,)   again   reduced  Transylvania  and 
Sclavonia  under  the  dominion  of  Austria.      These  continued 
reverses  cost  the  Grand  Vizier  his  life ;  he  was  strangled  by 
order  of  the   Sultan,  Mahomet  IV.,  who  was  himself  deposed 
by  his  rebellious  Janissaries, 

Encouraged  by  these  brilliant  victories,  the  Emperor  Leopold 
assembled  the  States  of  Hungary  at  Presburg.     He  there  de- 


PERIOD  VII       A.  D.  1648—1713.  53 

manded,  that,  in  conr.ideration  of  tne  extraordinary  efforts  he 
had  been  obliged  to  make  against  the  Ottomans,  the  kingdom 
should  be  declared  hereditary  in  his  family.  The  States  at 
first  appeared  inclined  to  maintain  their  own  right  of  election  ; 
but  yielding  soon  to  the  influence  of  authority,  they  agi-eed  to 
make  the  succession  hereditary  in  favour  of  the  males  of  the  two 
Austrian  branches  ;  on  the  extinction  of  which  they  were  to  be 
restored  to  their  ancient  rights.  As  for  the  privileges  of  the 
States,  founded  on  the  decree  of  King  Andrew  II.,  they  were 
renewed  at  that  Diet ;  with  the  exception  of  that  clause  in  the 
ihirty-first  article  of  the  decree,  which  authorized  the  States  to 
oppose,  by  open  force,  any  prince  that  should  attempt  to  infringe 
the  rights  and  liberties  of  the  country.  The  Jesuits,  who  were 
formerly  proscribed,  were  restored,  and  their  authority  establish- 
ed throughout  all  the  provinces  of  the  kingdom.  The  Protes- 
tants of  both  confessions  obtained  the  confirmation  of  the  churches 
and  prerogatives  that  had  been  secured  to  them  by  the  articles 
of  the  Diet  of  Odenburg ;  but  it  was  stipulated,  that  only  Catho- 
lics were  entitled  to  possess  property  within  the  kingdoms  of 
Dalmatia,  Croatia  and  Sclavonia.  The  Archduke  Joseph,  son 
of  Leopold  I.,  was  crowned  at  this  Diet  (December  19,  1687,) 
as  the  first  hereditary  King  of  Hungary. 

The  arms  of  Austria  were  crowned  with  new  victories  durino 
the  continuation  of  the  war  against  the  Turks.  Albe-Royale, 
Belgrade,  Semendria,  and  Gradisca,  fell  into  the  hands  of  the 
Emperor.  The  two  splendid  victories  at  Nissa  and  Widdin, 
which  Louis  prince  of  Baden  gained  (1689,)  secured  to  the  Aus 
trians  the  conquest  of  Servia,  Bosnia,  and  Bulgaria.  The  de- 
jected courage  of  the  Ottomans  was  for  a  time  revived  by  their 
new  Grand  Vizier  Mustapha  Kiupruli,  a  man  of  considerable 
genius.  After  gaining  several  advantages  over  the  Imperialists, 
he  took  from  them  Nissa,  Widdin,  Semendria,  and  Belgrade  ; 
and  likewise  reconquered  Bulgaria,  Servia,  and  Bosnia.  The 
extraordinary  eflforts  that  the  Porte  made  for  the  campaign  of 
the  following  year,  inspired  them  with  hopes  of  better  success ; 
but  their  expectations  were  quite  disappointed  by  the  unfortu- 
nate issue  of  the  famous  battle  of  Salankemen,  which  the  Prince 
of  Baden  gained  over  the  Turks,  (Aug.  19,  1691.)  The  brave 
Kiupruli  was  slain,  and  his  death  decided  the  victory  in  favour 
of  the  Imperialists.  The  war  with  France,  however,  which  then 
occupied  the  principal  forces  of  Austria,  did  not  permit  the  Em- 
peror to  reap  any  advantage  from  this  victory  ;  he  was  even 
obliged,  in  the  following  campaigns,  to  act  on  the  defensive  in 
Hungary;  and  it  was  not  until  the  conclusion  of  peace  with 
France,  that  he  was  able  to  resume  the  war  against  the  Turkb 

5^ 


64  CHAPTER  VllL 

with  fresh  vigour.  Prince  Eugene,  who  was  then  commander- 
in-chief  of  the  Imperial  army,  attacked  the  Suhan  Mustaplia 
.1.  in  person,  near  Zenta  on  the  river  Teiss  (Sept.  11,  1697,) 
'.vhere  he  gained  a  decisive  victory.  The  grand  Vizier,  seven- 
\ii(?n  Pachas,  and  two  thirds  of  the  Ottoman  army,  were  left 
dead  on  the  field  of  battle ;  and  the  gi'and  Seignior  was  com- 
pelled to  fall  back  in  disorder  on  Belgrade. 

This  terrible  blow  made  the  Porte  exceedingly  anxious  for 
jta^c;  and  he  had  recourse  to  the  mediation  of  England  and 
Holland.  A  negotiation,  which  proved  as  tedious  as  it  was  in- 
tricate, was  set  on  foot  at  Constantinople,  and  thence  transfer- 
red to  Carlowitz,  a  town  of  Sclavonia  lying  between  the  two 
camps,  one  of  which  was  at  Peterwaradin,  and  the  other  at 
Belgrade.  Peace  was  there  concluded  with  the  Emperor 
and  his  allies  (Jan.  26,  1699.)  The  Emperor,  by  that  treaty, 
retained  Hungary,  Transylvania  and  Sclavonia,  with  the  ex- 
ception of  the  Banat  of  Temeswar,  which  was  reserved  to  the 
Porle.  The  rivers  Marosch,  Teiss,  Save,  and  Unna,  were 
fixed  as  the  limits  between  the  two  Empires.  The  Count  Te- 
keli,  who  during  the  whole  of  this  war  had  constantly  espoused 
the  cause  of  the  Porte,  was  allowed  to  remain  in  the  Ottoman 
territory  ;  with  such  of  the  Hungarians  and  Transylvanians  as 
adhered  to  him. 

The  peace  of  Carlowitz  had  secured  to  the  Emperor  nearly 
the  whole  of  Hungary ;  but,  glorious  though  it  was,  it  did  not 
restore  the  internal  tranquillity  of  the  kingdom,  which  very 
soon  experienced  fresh  troubles.  The  same  complaints  that 
had  arisen  after  the  peace  of  Temeswar,  were  renewed  after 
that  of  Carlowitz  ;  to  these  were  even  added  several  others,  oc- 
■as^ioned  by  the  introduction  of  the  hereditary  succession,  at 
he  Diet  of  16S7,  by  the  suppression  of  the  clause  in  the  thirty- 
:irst  article  of  the  decree  of  Andrew  II.,  by  the  restoration  of 
he  Jesuits  and  the  banishment  of  Tekeli  and  his  adherents. 
\othing  was  wanted  but  a  ringleader  for  the  malecontents  to 
lekindle  the  flames  of  civil  war,  and  this  leader  was  soon  found 
in  the  person  of  the  famous  Prince  Ragoczi,  who  appeared  on 
i.he  scene  about  the  beginning  of  the  eighteenth  century,  and 
when  the  greater  part  of  Europe  were  involved  in  the  war  ol 
the  Spanish  Succession. 

Francis  Ragoczi  was  the  grandson  of  George  Ragoczi  II., 
who  had  been  prince  of  Transylvania  ;  and  held  a  distinguish- 
ed rank  in  the  States  of  Hungary,  not  more  by  his  illustrious 
hirth  than  by  the  great  possessions  which  belonged  to  his  fa- 
mily. The  Court  of  Vienna,  which  entertained  suspicions  of 
him  on  account  of  his  near  relationship  with  Tekeli,  had  kept 


PERIOD  vn.     A.  D.  1648 — 1713.  ^ 

lilm  in  a  sort  of  captivity  from  his  earliest  infancy ;  and  he 
was  not  set  at  large,  nor  restored  to  the  possession  of  his  estates, 
until  1694,  when  he  married  a  princess  of  Hesse-Rheinfels. 
From  that  time  he  resided  quietly  on  his  estates,  holding  his 
Court  at  Sarosch,  in  the  district  of  the  same  name.  Being  sus- 
jpccted  of  having  concerted  a  conspiracy  Vv^ith  the  malecontents, 
he  was  arrested  by  order  of  the  Court  of  Vienna  (1701.)  and 
carried  to  Neustadt  in  Austria,  whence  he  escaped  and  retired 
10  Poland,  Being  condemned  as  guilty  of  high  treason,  and 
ills  estates  de(^ared  forfeited,  he  took  the  resolution  of  placing 
iiimself  at  the  head  of  the  rebels,  and  instigating  Hungary 
against  the  Emperor.  France,  who  had  just  joined  in  the  war 
with  Austria,  encouraged  him  in  that  enterprise,  which  she 
regarded  as  a  favourable  event  for  creating  a  diversion  on  the 
part  of  her  enemy.  Having  arrived  in  Hungary,  Ragoczi  pub- 
lished a  manifesto  (1703,)  in  which  he  detailed  the  motives  of 
his  conduct,  and  exhorted  the  Hungarians  to  join  him,  for  vin- 
•dicating  their  ancient  liberties  which  had  been  oppressed  by  the 
House  of  Austria.  He  soon  attracted  a  crowd  of  partisans,  and 
made  himself  master  of  a  great  part  of  the  kingdom.  The 
Transylvanians  chose  him  for  their  prince  (1704  ;)  and  the  States 
of  Hungary,  v/h©  had  united  for  the  re-establishment  of  their 
laws  and  immunities,  declared  him  their  chief,  with  the  title  of 
Duke,  and  a  senate  of  twenty-five  persons.  Louis  XIV.  sent 
his  envoy,  the  Marquis  Dessalleurs,  to  congratulate  him  on 
Jiis  elevation ;  and  the  Czar,  Peter  the  Great,  offered  him  the 
throne  of  Poland  (1707,)  in  opposition  to  Stanislaus,  who  was 
protected  by  Charles  XII. 

The  House  of  Austria  being  engaged  in  the  Spanish  war, 
was  unable  for  a  long  time  to  reduce  the  Hungarian  malecon- 
tents. The  repeated  attempts  which  she  had  made  to  come  to  an 
accommodation  with  them  having  failed,  the  war  was  continued 
till  1711,  when  the  Austrians,  who  had  been  victorious,  com- 
pelled Ragoczi  to  evacuate  Hungary,  and  retire  to  the  frontiers 
of  Poland.  A  treaty  of  pacification  was  then  drawn  up.  The 
Emperor  promised  to  gi'ant  an  amnesty,  and  a  general  restitu- 
tion of  goods  in  favour  of  all  those  who  had  been  implicated  in 
ihe  insurrection.  He  came  under  an  engagement  to  preserve 
inviolable  the  rights,  liberties,  and  immunities  of  Hungary,  and 
the  principality  of  Transylvania  ;  to  reserve  all  civil  and  mili- 
tary offices  to  the  Hungarians  ;  to  maintain  the  laws  of  the 
kingdom  respecting  religion  ;  and  as  for  their  other  grievances, 
whether  political  or  ecclesiastical,  he  consented  to  have  them 
discussed  in  the  approaching  Diet.  These  articles  were  ap- 
proved and  signed  by  the  greater  part  of  the  malecontents,  who 


56  CHAPTER  vm. 

then  took  a  new  oath  of  allegiance  to  the  Emperor.  Ragoc2r> 
and  his  principal  adherents  were  the  only  persons  that  remain- 
ed proscribed  and  attainted,  having  refused  to  accede  to  these 
articles. 

The  Turkish  Empire,  once  so  formidable,  had  gTadually  fallen 
from  the  summit  of  its  grandeur ;  its  resources  were  exhausted, 
and  its  histor}''  marked  by  nothing  but  misfortunes.  The  effe- 
minacy and  incapacity  of  the  Sultans,  their  contempt  for  the 
arts  cultivated  by  the  Europeans,  and  the  evils  of  a  govern- 
ment purely  military  and  despotic,  by  degrees  twidermined  its 
strength,  and  eclipsed  its  glory  as  a  conquering  and  presiding 
power.  We  find  the  Janissaries,  a  lawless  and  undisciplined 
militia,  usurping  over  the  sovereigTi  and  the  throne  the  same 
rights  which  the  Praetorian  guards  had  arrogated  over  the  an- 
cient Roman  Emperors. 

The  last  conquest  of  any  importance  which  the  Turks  made 
was  that  of  Candia,  which  they  took  from  the  Republic  of  Venice. 
The  war  which  obtained  them  the  possession  of  that  island, 
lasted  for  twenty  years.  It  began  under  the  Sultan  Ibrahim 
(1645,)  and  was  continued  under  his  successor,  Mahomet  IV,. 
The  Venetians  defended  the  island  with  exemplary  courage  and 
intrepidity.  They  destroyed  several  of  the  Turkish  fleets ; 
and,  on  different  occasions,  they  kept  the  passage  of  the  Darda- 
nelles shut  against  the  Ottomans.  At  length  the  famous  Vizier 
Achmet  Kiupruli  undertook  the  siege  of  the  city  of  Candia 
(1667,)  at  the  head  of  a  formidable  army.  This  siege  was  one 
of  the  most  sanguinary  recorded  in  history.  The  Turks  lost 
above  a  hundred  thousand  men  ;  and  it  was  not  till  after  a  siege 
of  two  ;years  and  four  months  that  the  place  surrendered  to 
them  by  a  capitulation  (Sept.  5,  1669,)  which  at  the  same  time 
regulated  the  conditions  of  peace  between  the  Turks  and  the 
Venetians.  These  latter,  on  surrendering  Candia,  reserved,  iu 
the  islands  and  islets  adjoining,  three  places,  viz.  Suda,  Spina- 
loiiga,  and  Garabusa.  They  also  retained  Clissa,  and  some 
other  places  in  Dalmatia  and  Albania,  which  they  had  seizec 
during  the  war.  The  reign  of  Mahomet  from  that  time,  pre- 
sented nothing  but  a  succession  of  wars,  of  which  that  against 
Hungary  was  the  most  fatal  to  the  Ottoman  Empire.  The 
Turks  were  overvv^helmed  by  the  powerful  league  formed 
between  Austria,  Poland,  Russia,  and  the  Republic  of  Venice. 
They  experienced,  as  we  have  already  noticed,  a  series  of  fatal 
disasters  during  that  war ;  and  imputing  these  misfortunes  to 
the  effeminacy  of  their  Sultan,  they  resolved  to  depose  him. 
Mustapha  II.,  the  third  in  succession  from  Mahomet  IV.,  ter- 
minated this  destructive  war  by  the  peace  of  Carlovvitz,  when 


PERIOD  vm.     A.  D.  1713 — 1789.  S^ 

the  Turks  lost  all  their  possessions  in  Hungary,  except  Temeswar 
and  Belgrade.  They  gave  up  to  Poland  the  fortress  of  Kami-  ^ 
niec,  with  Podolia,  and  the  part  of  the  Ukraine  on  this  side  the 
Nieper,  which  had  been  ceded  to  them  by  former  treaties.  The 
Venetians,  b}?  their  treaty  with  the  Porte,  obtained  possession 
of  the  Morea,  which  they  had  conquered  during  the  war  ;  in- 
cluding the  islands  of  St.  Maura  and  Leucadia,  as  also  the  for- 
tresses of  Dalmatia,  Knin,  Sing,  Ciciut,  Gabella,  Castlenuovo, 
and  Risano.  Finally,  the  Porte  renounced  the  tribute  which 
Venice  had  formerly  paid  for  the  isle  of  Zante  ;  and  the  Repub- 
lic of  Ragusa  was  guaranteed  in  its  independence,  with  respect 
to  the  Venetians. 


CHAPTER    IX.  P 

PERIOD  VIIL 

From  the  Peace  of  Utrecht  to  the  French  Revolution,     a.  d 

1713—1789. 

[During  the  wars  of  the  preceding  period,  arts  and  lettei:. 
iiad  made  extraordinary  progress  ;  especially  in  France,  where 
they  seemed  to  have  reached  the  highest  degree  of  perfection 
to  which  the  limited  genius  of  man  can  carry  them.  The  age 
of  Louis  XIV.  revived,  and  almost  equalled  those  master-pieces 
which  Greece  had  produced  under  Pericles,  Rome  under  Au- 
gustus, and  Italy  under  the  patronage  of  the  Medici.  This 
was  the  classical  era  of  French  literature.  The  grandeur 
which  reigned  at  the  court  of  that  monarch,  and  the  glory  which 
his  vast  exploits  had  reflected  on  the  nation,  inspired  authors 
with  a  noble  enthusiasm  ;  the  public  taste  was  refined  by  imi- 
tating the  models  of  antiquity  ;  and  this  preserved  the  French 
writers  from,  those  extravagancies  which  some  other  nations 
have  mistaken  for  the  standard  of  genius.  Their  language, 
polished  by  the  Academ^y  according  to  fixed  rules,  the  first  and 
most  fundamental  of  which  condemns  every  thing  that  does 
£iot  tend  to  unite  elegance  with  perspicuity,  became  the  general 
medium  of  communication  among  the  different  nations  in  the 
civilized  world ;  and  this  literary  conquest  which  France  made 
over  the  minds  of  other  nations,  is  more  glorious,  and  has 
proved  more  advantageous  to  her,  than  that  universal  dominion 
to  which  Louis  XIV.  is  said  to  have  aspired. 

In  the  period  on  which  we  are  now  entering,  men  of  genius 
and  talents,  though  they  did  not  neglect  the  Belles-Lettres, 
<Ievoted  them.selves  chiefly  to  those  sciences,  and  that  kind  af 


iS  CHAPTEK  IX, 

learning,  the  study  of  which  has  been  diffused  over  all  classe« 
of  society.  Several  branches  of  mathematics  and  natural  philo- 
sophy, assumed  a  form  entirely  new;  the  knowledge  of  the 
ancient  classics,  which,  till  then,  had  been  studied  chiefly  for  the 
formation  of  taste,  became  a  branch  of  common  education,  and 
gave  birth  to  a  variety  of  profound  and  useful  researches.  Geo- 
metry, astronomy,  mechanics,  and  navigation,  were  brought  to 
great  perfection,  by  the  rivalry  among  the  different  scientific 
academies  in  Europe.  Natural  Philosophy  discovered  many  of 
the  laws  and  phenomena  of  nature.  Chemistry  rose  from  the 
rank  of  an  obscure  art,  and  put  on  the  garb  of  an  attractive 
science.  Natural  History,  enriched  by  the  discoveries  of  learned 
travellers,  was  divested  of  those  fables  and  chimeras  which 
ignorance  had  attributed  to  her.  History,  supported  by  the 
auxiliary  sciences  of  Geography  and  Chronology,  became  a 
branch  of  general  philosophy. 

The  equilibrium  among  the  different  States,  disturbed  by  the  am- 
bition of  Louis  XIV.,  had  been  confirmed  by  the  peace  of  Utrecht, 
which  lasted  during  twenty-four  years  without  any  great  altera 
tion.     Nevertheless,  in  the  political  transactions  which  took  place 
at  this  time,  Rngland  enjoyed  a  preponderance  which  had  been 
growing  gradually  since  she  had  ceased  to  be  the  theatre  of  civil 
discord.     The  glory  which  she  had  acquired  by  the  success  of 
her  arms  in  the   Spanish   wars,  and  the  important   advantages 
which  the  treaty  of  Utrecht  had  procured  her,  both  in  Europe 
and  America,  augmented  her  political  power,  and  gave  her  an 
influence  in  general  affairs  which  she  never  had  enjoyed  before. 
That  nation  carried  their  commerce  and  their  marine  to  an  extent 
which  could  not  fail  to  alarm  the  other  commercial  and  maritime 
states,  and  make  them  perceive  that,  if  the  care  of  their  own  trade 
and   independence  made  it  necessary  to  maintain  a  system  of 
equilibrium  on  the  Continent,  it  was  equally  important  for  their 
prosperity  that  bounds  should  be  set  to  the  monopolizing  power 
of  England.     This  gave  rise  at  first  to  a  new  kind  of  rivalry  be- 
tween France  and  England — a  rivalry  whose  effects  were  more 
particularly  manifested  after  the  middle  of  the  eighteenth  cen- 
tury,   and   which    occasioned  an   intimate   alliance  among  the 
branches  of  the  House  of  Bourbon.     At  a  later  date,  and  in  con- 
sequence of  the  principles  which  the  English  professed  as  to  the 
commerce  of  neutral  states,  the  powers  of  the  North  leagued 
themselves  against  that  universal  dominion  which  they  were 
accused  of  wishing  to  usurp  over  the  sea.     In  the  Ninth  Period, 
we  shall  even  see  the  whole  Continent  for  a  short  time  turned 
against  that  nation — the  only  one  that  has  been  able  to  preserve 
her  commerce  and  her  independence. 


PERIOD  vin.     A.  D.  1713 — 1789.  €ft 

This  preponderance  of  England  is  the  first  change  which  the 
poiincal  system  of  Europe  experienced  in  the  eighteenth  ceumrv 
The  second  took  place  in  the  North.  Till  that  time,  the  northern 
countries  of  Europe  had  never,  except  transiently,  had  any  poli- 
tical connexions  with  the  South.  Russia,  separated  by  the 
posFessions  of  Sweden  on  the  coasts  of  the  Baltic,  had  belongt^d 
rather  to  Asia  than  to  our  quarter  of  the  world.  Poland;  fallen 
from  her  ancient  greatness,  had  sunk  into  a  state  of  anarchy  and 
exhaustion.  Denmark  and  Sweden  were  disputing  the  command 
of  the  Baltic,  and  had  no  other  influence  on  the  politics  of  the 
South  than  that  which  Sweden  had  acquired  by  the  personal 
qualities  of  some  of  her  kings.  The  great  war  of  the  North, 
which  broke  out  at  the  commencement  of  the  eighteenth  century, 
and  the  conquests  of  Peter  the  Great,  vdiich  extended  the  limits 
of  his  Empire  as  far  as  the  Gulf  of  Finland,  and  reduced  Sweden 
to  a  state  of  debility  from  which  she  has  not  yet  recovered, 
enabled  Russia  not  only  to  take  a  distinguished  lead  in  the 
North,  but  to  become  an  important  member  in  the  system  of 
Europe. 

Meantime,  the  foundation  of  the  Prussian  monarchy  gave  rise 
to  a  new  and  intermediate  power  between  the  North  and  the 
South ;  but  that  state  remained  within  the  bounds  of  mediocrity 
until  the  middle  of  the  eighteenth  century.  At  that  time  the 
genius  of  Frederic  II.  alone  raised  it  to  a  pitch  of  greatness  which 
enabled  it  to  struggle  against  the  superior  force  of  its  neighbours, 
but  without  menacing  the  independence  of  other  states.  This 
growing  power  of  Prussia,  however,  occasioned  a  rivalry  between 
it  and  Austria,  which  for  seventy  years  had  an  influence  on  the 
politics  of  Europe.  It  produced  the  extraordinary  spectacle  of 
an  intimate  alliance  between  two  ancient  rivals,  the  Houses  of 
Austria  and  Bourbon ;  and,  by  dividing  Germany  between  two 
opposite  systems,  it  paved  the  way  for  the  dissolution  of  that 
Empire.  Such  was  the  third  change  which  the  polity  of  Europe 
experienced  in  course  of  the  eighteenth  century. 

The  fourth  change  was  less  felt  than  the  three  others ;  its 
fatal  consequences  did  not  develope  themselves  until  the  Ninth 
Period.  For  the  first  time  within  the  last  three  centuries,  the 
sovereigns  of  Europe  ventured  to  break  treaties  and  to  violate 
engagements,  to  declare  war  and  undertake  conquests,  without 
alleging  any  other  motives  than  reasons  of  convenience,  and  the 
ambition  of  aggrandizement.  Thus  the  basis  of  the  equilibrium 
system,  the  inviolability  of  possessions  honourably  acquired,  was 
sapped,  and  the  downfall  of  the  whole  system  prepared.  The 
events  of  the  wars  for  the  succession  of  Austria,  furnished  the 
first  examples  of  this  contempt  for  treaties  ;  they  were  renewed 


60  CHAPTER  12. 

tn  an  alarming  manner  on  the  partition  of  Poland,  and  by  the 
attempts  which  the  Emperor  Joseph  made  to  seize  Bavaria.  The 
act  of  iniquity  committed  against  Poland  was  often  cited,  durmg 
the  period  of  the  French  Revolution,  to  justify  all  sorts  of  vio- 
lence and  usurpation ;  and  it  was  followed  by  a  long  train  of 
calamities. 

Commerce  continued,  in  the  eighteenth  century,  to  he  one  of 
:he  principal  objects  that  occupied  the  Cabinets  of  Europe.  The 
mercantile  systern  was  brought  to  great  perfection,  and  became, 
with  most  nations,  the  basis  of  their  administration.  The  mari- 
time powers  turned  all  their  attention,  and  bestowed  the  greatest 
care,  on  their  colonies,  the  number  and  wealth  of  which  were 
augmented  by  new  establishments  and  better  regulations.  In 
imitation  of  Louis  XIV.,  most  of  the  states  kept  up  numerous 
standing  armies ;  a  practice  which  they  even  carried  to  excess. 
The  influence  of  England  in  Continental  afiairs  was  increased  ; 
as  she  had  no  occasion  to  augment  her  own  army  in  proportion 
to  that  of  other  kingdoms,  she  was  able  to  furnish  them  with 
those  supplies  which  were  necessary  to  carry  on  their  wars. 
Besides,  since  the  time  of  Frederic  II.,  or  about  the  year  1740, 
tactics,  and  the  military  art  in  general,  had  reached  a  degree  of 
perfection  which  seemed  scarcely  to  admit  of  further  improve- 
ment. Finally,  the  financial  system  of  several  states  experienced 
a  revolution,  by  the  invention  of  public  funds  for  the  payment  of 
national  debts  ;  especially  that  instituted  by  Mr.  Pitt,  called  the 
Sinking  Fund.] 

The  extraordinary  efforts  which  the  powers  of  Europe  had 
made  during  the  last  century,  for  maintaining  the  equilibrium 
of  the  Continent  against  the  ambitious  designs  of  France  and 
Sweden,  brought  on  a  long  period  of  tranquillity,  which  gave 
these  nations  an  opportunity  of  encouraging  arts,  industry  and 
commerce,  and  thereby  repairing  the  evils  which  the  long  and 
disastrous  wars  had  occasioned.  Cabinets  were  attentive  to 
maintain  the  stipulations  of  the  treaties  of  Utrecht  and  Stock- 
holm ;  and,  by  means  of  negotiations,  to  guard  against  every 
hing  that  might  rekindle  a  new  general  war.  The  good  under- 
standing that  subsisted  between  France  and  Great  Britain  during 
me  reign  of  George  I.  and  the  beginning  of  that  of  George  II. — 
or,  in  other  words,  under  the  administration  of  Walpole,  was  the 
?ffect  of  those  temporary  interests  that  engrossed  the  attention 
of  the  two  Courts — the  one  being  under  terror  of  the  Pretender, 
and  the  other  alarmed  at  the  ambitious  projects  of  Spain. 

The  Duke  of  Orleans,  Regent  of  France  during  the  minority 
of  Louis  XV.,  was  anxious  to  maintain  that  peace  and  political 
order  which  the  late  treaties  had  introduced  :  iiavinj?  it  in  view 


PERIOD  vm.     A.  D.  1713 — 1789.  61 

(to  remedy  those  disorders  in  the  finance,  which  Louis  XIV.  had 
left  in  so  deplorable  a  state. ^  The  King  of  Spain,  on  the  other 
hand,  who  was  desirous  of  reviving  his  rights  to  the  crown  of 
France,  went  into  the  rash  schemes  of  Cardinal  Alberoni,^  his 
prime  minister,  purporting  to  renew  the  war ;  to  reconquer  those 
territories  which  the  peace  of  Ulrecht  had  dismembered  from 
the  Spanish  monarchy  ;  to  deprive  the  Duke  of  Orleans  of  the 
regency,  and  vest  it  in  the  King  of  Spain  ;  and  to  place  the  Pre- 
tender, son  of  James  II.,  on  the  throne  of  Great  Britain. 

The  treaty  of  Utrecht,  although  it  had  tranquillized  a  great 
part  of  Europe,  was  nevertheless  defective,  in  as  far  as  it  had 
not  reconciled  the  Emperor  and  the  King  of  Spain,  the  two  prin- 
cipal claimants  to  the  Spanish  succession.  The  Emperor 
Charles  VI.  did  not  recognise  Philip  V.  in  his  quality  of  King 
of  Spain ;  and  Philip,  in  his  turn,  refused  to  acquiesce  in  those 
partitions  of  the  Spanish  monarchy,  which  the  treaty  of  Utrecht 
had  stipulated  in  favour  of  the  Emperor.  To  defeat  the  projects 
and  secret  intrigues  of  the  Spanish  minister,  the  Duke  of  Or- 
leans thought  of  courting  an  alliance  with  England,  as  being 
the  power  most  particularly  interested  in  maintaining  the  treaty 
of  Utrecht,  the  fundamental  articles  of  which  had  been  dictated 
by  herself.  That  alliance,  into  which  the  United  Provinces  also 
entered,  was  concluded  at  the  Hague  (Jan.  4,  1717.)  The  arti- 
cles of  the  treaty  of  Utrecht,  those  especially  which  related  to 
the  succession  of  the  two  crowns,  were  there  renewed  ;  and  the 
Regent,  in  complaisance  to  the  King  of  England,  agreed  to 
banish  the  Pretender  from  France,  and  to  admit  British  com- 
missaries into  Dunkirk  to  superintend  that  port. 

Cardinal  Alberoni,  without  being  in  the  least  disconcerted  by 
the  Triple  Alliance,  persisted  in  his  design  of  recommencing  the 
war.  No  sooner  had  he  recruited  the  Spanish  forces,  and 
equipped  an  expedition,  than  he  attacked  Sardinia,  which  he 
took  from  the  Emperor.  This  conquest  was  followed  by  that 
of  Sicily,  which  the  Spaniards  took  from  the  Duke  of  Savoy 
(1718.) 

France  and  England,  indignant  at  the  infraction  of  a  treaty 
which  they  regarded  as  their  own  work,  immediately  concluded 
with  the  Emperor,  at  London  (Aug.  2,  1718,)  the  famous  Quad- 
ruple Alliance,  which  contained  the  plan  of  a  treaty  of  peace,  to 
be  made  between  the  Emperor,  the  King  of  Spain,  and  the  Duke 
of  Savoy.  The  allied  powers  engaged  to  obtain  the  consent  of 
the  parties  interested  in  this  proposal,  and  in  case  of  refusal,  to 
compel  them  by  force  of  arms.  The  Emperor  Avas  to  renounce 
his  right  to  the  Spanish  crown,  and  to  acknowledge  Philip  V. 
as  the  legitimate  King  of  Spain,  in  consideration  of  his  renoun- 

vm,.  11.  ^ 


62  CHAPTER  IX. 

cing  the  provinces  of  Italy  and  the  Netherlands,  which  the  trealj 
of  Utrecht  and  the  quadruple  alliance  adjudged  to  the  EmperoT. 
The  Duke  of  Savoy  was  to  cede  Sicily  to  Austria,  receivino 
Sardinia  in  exchange,  which  the  King  of  Spain  was  to  give  up. 
The  right  of  reversion  to  the  crown  of  Spain  was  transferred 
from  Sicily  to  Sardinia.  That  treaty  likewise  granted  to  Don 
Carlos,  eldest  son  of  Philip  V.,  by  his  second  marriage,  the  even- 
tual reversion  and  investiture  of  the  dutchies  of  Parma  and  Pla- 
centia,  as  well  as  the  grand  dutchy  of  Tuscany,  on  condition  oi 
holding  them  as  fiefs-male  of  the  Emperor  and  the  Empire,  aftei 
the  decease  of  the  last  male  issue  of  the  families  of  Farnese  and 
Medici,  who  were  then  in  possession ;  and  the  better  to  secure 
this  double  succession  to  the  Infantej  they  agreed  to  introduce  a 
body  of  six  thousand  Swiss  into  the  two  dutchies,  to  be  quartered 
in  Leghorn,  Porto-Ferrajo,  Parma,  and  Placentia.  The  con- 
tracting powers  undertook  to  guarantee  the  payment  of  these 
troops. 

The  Duke  of  Savoy  did  not  hesitate  to  subscribe  to  the  condi- 
tions of  the  quadruple  alliance ;  but  it  was  otherwise  with  the 
King  of  Spain,  who  persisted  in  his  refusal ;  when  France  and 
England  declared  war  against  him.  The  French  invaded  the 
provinces  of  Guipuscoa  and  Catalonia,  Avhile  the  English  seized 
Gallicia  and  the  port  of  Vigo.  These  vigorous  proceedings 
shook  the  resolutions  of  the  King  of  Spain.  He  signed  the 
quadruple  alliance,  and  banished  the  Cardinal  Alberoni  from  his 
court,  the  adviser  of  those  measures  of  which  the  allies  com- 
plained. The  Spanish  troops  then  evacuated  Sicily  and  Sardi- 
nia, when  the  Emperor  took  possession  of  the  former,  and  Victor 
Amadeus,  Duke  of  Savoy,  of  the  latter. 

The  war  to  all  appearance  was  at  an  end ;  peace,  however, 
was  far  from  being  concluded,  and  there  still  remained  many 
difficulties  to  settle  between  the  Emperor,  the  King  of  Spain, 
and  the  Duke  of  Savoy.  To  accomplish  this,  and  conclude  a 
definitive  treaty  between  these  three  powers,  a  Congress  was 
summoned  at  Cambray,  which  was  to  open  in  1721,  under  the 
mediation  of  France  and  England ;  but  some  disputes  which 
arose  regarding  certain  preliminary  articles,  retarded  their  meet- 
ing for  several  years.  Their  first  and  principal  object  was  to 
effect  an  exchange  of  the  acts  of  mutual  renunciation  between 
the  Emperor  and  the  King  of  Spain,  as  stipulated  by  the  treaty 
of  the  quadruple  alliance.  The  Emperor,  who  was  reluctant  to 
abandon  his  claims  to  the  Spanish  monarchy,  started  diffiiculties 
as  to  the  form  of  these  renunciations.  He  demanded  that  Phi- 
lip's renunciation  of  the  provinces  of  Italy  and  the  Netherlands, 
ihould  be  confirmed  by  the  Spanish  Cortes.     Philip  demanded, 


PEiiioD  vm.     A  D.  1713— 17S9.  63 

in  his  turn,  that  the  renunciation  of  the  Emperor  with  regard  to 
Spain,  should  be  ratified  by  the  States  of  the  Empire.  To  get 
clear  of  this  difficulty,  France  and  England  agreed,  by  a  special 
compact,  signed  at  Paris  (Sept.  27, 1721,)  that  the  renunciations 
of  both  princes,  however  defectiv^e  the}' might  be,  should  be  held 
valid  under  the  guaranty  of  the  two  mediating  powers. 

Scarcely  was  this  difficulty  settled,  when  another  presented 
itself,  much  more  embarrassing.  This  related  to  the  Company 
of  Ostend,  which  the  Emperor  had  instituted,  and  to  which,  by 
charter  signed  at  Vienna  (Dec.  19,  1722,)  he  had  granted,  for 
thirty  years,  the  exclusive  privilege  of  trading  to  the  East  and 
West  Indies,  and  the  coasts  of  Africa.  That  establishment  set 
the  maritime  powers  at  variance  with  the  Emperor  ;  especially 
the  Dutch,  who  regarded  it  as  prejudicial  to  their  Indian  com- 
merce. They  maintained,  that  according  to  the  treaty  of  Mun- 
ster,  confirmed  by  the  twenty-sixth  article  of  the  Barrier  Treaty 
(1715,)  the  trade  of  the  Spaniards  with  the  East  Indies  was  to 
remain  as  it  was  at  that  time. 

Nothing  in  these  preliminary  discussions  met  with  so  much 
opposition  as  the  grant  of  the  eventual  reversion  and  investiture 
of  Tuscany,  Parma,  and  Placentia,  which  the  Emperor  had  en- 
gaged, by  the  Quadruple  Alliance,  to  give  to  Don  Carlos,  the 
infante  of  Spain.  The  Duke  of  Parma,  the  Pope,  and  the  Grand 
Duke  of  Tuscany  joined  in  opposition  to  it.  Anthony,  the  last 
Duke  of  Parma  and  Placentia,  of  the  House  of  Farnese,  de- 
manded that  the  Emperor  should  never,  during  his  life,  exercise 
over  the  dutchy  of  Parma,  the  territorial  rights  established  by 
the  treaty  of  the  Quadruple  Alliance,  The  Pope  also  protested 
loudly  against  that  clause  of  the  treaty  which  deprived  him  of 
the  rights  of  superiority  over  Parma  and  Placentia,  which  his 
predecessors  had  enjoyed  for  several  centuries.  As  for  the 
Grand  Duke  of  Tuscany,  John  Gaston,  the  last  of  the  Medici,  he 
maintained,  that  as  his  dutchy  neld  of  God  only,  he  could  never 
permit  that  it  should  be  declared  a  fief  of  the  Empire  .  nor  recog- 
nise the  Infante  of  Spain  as  heir  of  his  estates,  to  the  prejudice 
of  his  sister's  rights,  the  widow  of  the  Elector  Palatine. 

Charles  VI,  without  stopping  at  these  objections,  laid  the 
business  of  these  investitures  before  the  Diet  of  Ratisbon  ;  and, 
after  having  obtained  their  consent,  he  caused  copies  to  be  made 
of  the  letters  of  reversion  and  investiture  in  favour  of  Don  Carlos 
and  his  heirs-male.  These  havin<?-  been  presented  to  the  Con- 
gress, the  King  of  Spain  refused  to  receive  them  ;  alleging  the 
protests  of  the  Pope,  and  the  Grand  Duke  of  Tuscany;  nor 
would  he  agree  to  them,  except  on  condition  of  an  act  of  guaranty 
on  the  part  of  the  mediating  powers.     Ail  these  difficulties  being 


^4  CHAPTER   IX. 

settled,  and  the  preliminaries  closed,  they  at  length  proceeded 
with  the  conferences  at  Cambray  (April  1724,)  for  the  conclu- 
sion of  a  definitive  peace  between  the  Emperor,  the  King  of 
Spain,  and  the  Duke  of  Savoy.  Eveiy  thing  seemed  arrived 
at  an  amicable  termination,  when  some  differences  arose  between 
the  commissioners  of  the  Emperor  and  those  of  the  mediating 
powers,  which  occasioned  new  interruptions. 

Meantime,  the  Duke  of  Bourbon,  who  had  succeeded  the  Duke 
of  Orleans  in  the  ministry,  sent  back  to  Spain  the  Infanta  Maria, 
daughter  of  Philip  V.,  who  had  been  educated  at  the  court  of 
France,  as  the  intended  spouse  of  Louis  XV.  This  event  broke 
up  the  Congress.  Philip  V.,  greatly  offended,  recalled  his 
ministers  from  Cambray.  Baron  Ripperda,  ^  whom  he  had  sent 
as  envoy  to  the  Imperial  Court  put  an  end  to  the  differences  be- 
tween these  two  powers,  in  despite  of  the  mediation  of  France. 
In  consequence,  a  special  treaty  was  concluded  at  Vienna  be- 
tween the  Emperor  and  the  King  of  Spain  (April  30,  172o.) 
This  treaty  renewed  the  renunciation  of  Philip  V.  to  the  pro- 
vinces of  Italy  and  the  Netherlands,  as  well  as  that  of  the  Em- 
peror to  Spain  and  the  Indies.  The  eventual  investiture  of  the 
dutchies  o{  Parma  and  Placentia,  and  that  of  the  grand  dutchy 
of  Tuscany,  were  also  confirmed.  The  only  new  clause  con- 
tained in  the  treaty,  was  that  by  which  the  King  of  Spain  under- 
took to  guarantee  the  famous  Pragmatic  Sanction  of  Charles  VL, 
which  secured  to  the  daughter  of  that  prince  the  succession  of 
all  his  estates.  It  was  chiefly  on  this  account  that  Philip  V. 
became  reconciled  to  the  Court  of  Vienna. 

The  peace  of  Vienna  was  accompanied  by  a  defensive  alliance 
between  the  Emperor  and  the  King  of  Spain.  Among  other 
clauses,  one  was  that  the  Emperor  should  interpose  to  obtain 
for  the  King  of  Spain  the  restitution  of  Gibraltar  and  the  island 
of  Minorca;  while  Philip,  on  his  side,  granted  to  the  shipping 
of  the  Emperor  and  his  subjects  free  entrance  into  his  ports,  and 
all  iimnunities  and  prerogatives  which  were  enjoyed  by  the 
nations  in  the  strictest  commercial  connexions  with  Spain, 
These  clauses  alanned  England  and  Holland;  and  the  intimacy 
which  had  been  established  between  the  Courts  of  Vienna  and 
Madrid  attracted  more  particularly  the  attention  of  the  Duke  of 
Bourbon,  who  dreaded  the  resentment  of  the  King  of  Spain,  as 
he  had  advised  the  return  of  the  Infanta.  To  prevent  any  such 
consequences,  he  set  on  foot  a  league  with  England  and  Prus- 
sia, capable  of  counteracting  that  of  Vienna,  which  was  concluded 
at  Herrenhausen,  near  Hanover  (Sept.  3,  1725,)  and  is  known 
by  the  name  oi  the  Alliaiice  of  Hanover. 

All  Europe  was  divided  between  these  two  alliances.     Hoi- 


PERIOD  vni.     A.  D.  1713 — 1789.  65 

land,  Sweden,  and  Denmark  acceded  to  tne  alliance  of  Hanover. 
'Catherine  I.  of  Russia,  and  the  principal  Catholic  States  of  the 
Empire  joined  that  of  Vienna.  The  Emperor  even  succeeded 
\n  detaching  the  King  of  Prussia  from  the  alliance  of  Hanover 
to  join  his  own.  Europe  seemed  then  on  the  eve  of  a  generai 
war;  the  ambassadors  to  the  different  courts  were  recalled.  The 
English  sent  a  numerous  and  powerful  fleet  to  America,  the 
Mediterranean,  and  the  Baltic  ;  while  the  Spaniards  commenced 
hostilities,  by  laying  siege  to  Gibraltar.  The  death  of  the  Em- 
press of  Russia  (May  17,  1727,)  however,  caused  a  change  in 
the  disposition  of  the  Northern  powers.  The  Emperor,  seeing 
he  could  no  longer  reckon  on  the  assistance  of  Russia,  showed 
no  anxiety  to  second  the  efforts  of  the  Spaniards ;  but  what 
chiefly  contributed  to  the  maintenance  of  peace  was,  that  neithei 
France  nor  England  was  desirous  of  war. 

In  this  situation  of  affairs,  the  Pope  interposed  his  mediation 
and  a  new  preliminary  treaty  was  signed  at  Paris,  which  or ' 
dained  that  there  should  be  an  armistice  for  seven  years ;  that 
the  Company  of  Ostend  should  be  suspended  for  the  same  time  ; 
and  that  a  new  General  Congress  should  be  held  at  Aix-la- 
Chapelle. 

This  congress  was  first  transferred  to  Cambray,  and  thence  tc 
Soissons,  where  it  was  opened  in  1728.  Ambassadors  from 
almost  all  the  Courts  of  Europe  appeared  there;  and  they  ex- 
pected, wdth  some  reason,  a  happy  conclusion  of  the  business  ; 
as  most  of  the  difficulties  which  had  embarrassed  the  Congress 
of  Cambray  were  settled  by  the  peace  of  Vienna,  and  as  the  only 
subject  for  deliberation  Avas  to  settle  the  succession  of  Parma  and 
Tuscany.  But  the  Emperor  having  demanded  that  the  Austrian 
Pragmatic  Sanction  should  be  adopted  as  the  basis  of  the  arrange- 
ments for  establishing  the  peace  of  Soissons,  that  incident  be- 
came the  subject  of  new  disputes.  Cardinal  Fleury,  then  prime 
minister  of  France,  having  strongly  opposed  this  claim  of  the 
Court  of  Vienna,  the  Emperor,  in  his  turn,  threw  obstacles  in 
the  way  of  the  negotiation  at  Soissons.  This  inclined  the  Car- 
dinal to  make  overtures  to  the  Court  of  Madrid,  with  whom  he 
concerted  a  secret  negotiation,  in  which  he  also  found  means  to 
associate  England. 

This  gave  rise  to  a  treaty  of  peace,  union,  and  offensive  al- 
liance, which  was  signed  at  Seville  between  France,  Spain,  and 
England  (November  9,  1729.)  These  powers  engaged  to  gua- 
rantee the  succession  of  Parma  and  Tuscany  in  favour  of  the 
Infante  Don  Carlos  ;  and  to  effect  this,  they  resolved  to  substitute 
six  thousand  Spanish  troops  in  the  Swiss  garrisons,  named  by 
he  Quadruple  Alliance.     The  Dutch  acceded  to  that  treaty,  in 

6^ 


66  (CHAPTER  IX. 

consideration  of  the  engagement  which  the  contracting  powers 
came  under  to  give  them  entire  satisfaction  with  respect  to  the 
Company  of  Ostend. 

The  Emperor,  finding  the  treaty  of  Seville  eonclnded  ivith- 
.:ut  his  co-operation,  was  apprehensive  of  having  failed  ni  his 
j:«rincipal  aim,  viz.  the  adoption  of  the  Austrian  Pragmatic  Sanc- 
tion. He  was  indignant  that  the  allies  at  Seville  should  pre- 
tend to  lay  down  the  law  to  him  touching  the  abolition  of  the 
Ostend  Company,  and  the  introduction  of  Spanish  troops  into 
Italy.  Accordingly,  being  determined  not  to  comply,  he  imme- 
diately broke  off  all  relationship  with  the  Court  of  Spain  ;  he 
recalled  his  ambassador,  and  took  measures  to  prevent  the  Spa- 
nish troops  from  taking  possession  of  Italy.  The  last  Duke  of 
Parma,  Anthony  Farnese,  being  dead  (1731,)  he  took  posses- 
sion of  his  dutchy  by  force  of  arms. 

At  length,  to  terminate  all  these  differences,  the  King  of  Eng- 
land, in  concert  with  the  States-General,  opened  a  negotiation 
with  the  Emperor  ;  the  result  of  which  was  a  treaty  of  alliance, 
signed  at  Vienna,  between  him,  England  and  Holland  (March 
16,  1731.)  In  virtue  of  that  treaty,  the  three  contracting  pow- 
ers mutually  guai'anteed  their  estates,  rights  and  possessions  ; 
England  and  Holland,  more  especially,  engaged  to  guarantee 
the  Austrian  Pragmatic  Sanction  ;  and  the  Emperor,  on  his 
side,  consented  to  the  introduction  of  Spanish  troops  into  Italy^ 
and  to  the  suppression  of  the  Company  of  Ostend  ;  he  even 
agreed  that  the  Netherlands  should  never  carry  on  trade  with 
the  Indies,  either  by  the  Ostend  Company,  or  any  other. 

In  consequence  of  this  treaty,  which  was  approved  by  the 
States-General,  Don  Carlos  took  possession  of  Parma  and  Pla- 
eentia ;  and  the  Grand  Duke  of  Tuscany  also  recognised  him 
as  his  successor.  Thus  terminated  these  long  disputes  about 
the  Spanish  Succession,  after  having  agitated  the  greater  part 
of  Europe  for  upwards  of  thirty  years. 

In  the  midst  of  these  contentions,  a  war  had  arisen  between 
the  Porte  and  the  Republic  of  Venice  ;  in  which  the  Emperor 
Charles  VI.  was  also  implicated.  The  Turks  were  desirous  of 
recovering  the  Morea,  which  they  had  been  obliged  to  abandon 
to  the  Venetians  at  the  peace  of  Carlowitz ;  but  instead  of  at- 
tacking that  Republic,  while  the  Emperor  was  engaged  with  the 
French  war,  and  unable  to  render  it  assistance,  they  waited  till 
the  conclusion  of  the  treaties  of  Utrecht,  Rastadt,  and  Baden, 
before  they  declared  hostilities.  The  pretexts  which  the  Turks 
made  to  justify  this  rupture  were  extremely  frivolous  ;  but  they 
knew  well  that  the  Venetians,  who  had  lived  in  the  most  com- 
plete security  since  the  peace  of  Carlowitz,  had  neglected  to  re- 


PERIOD  vm.     A.  D.  1713 — 1789.  '6^ 

pair  the  fortifications  which  had  been  destroyed  in  the  war,  and 
that  it  would  be  easy  for  them  to  reconquer  them. 

In  fact,  during  the  campaign  of  1715,  the  Grand  Vizier  not 
only  recovered  the  Morea,  he  even  dispossessed  the  Venetians 
of  the  places  which  they  still  retained  in  the  Isle  of  Candia . 
and,  ai  the  commencement  of  the  following  campaign,  they  laia 
steofe  to  the  town  of  Corfu.  Charles  VI.  thouofht  he  was  bound, 
us  the  guarantee  of  the  peace  of  Carlowitz,  to  espouse  the 
t'uuse  of  the  Venetians  ;  he  declared  war  against  the  Porte,  and 
hj's  example  was  followed  by  the  Pope  and  the  King  of  Spain, 
who  united  their  fleets  to  those  of  the  Republic.  The  Turks 
were  defeated  in  several  engagements,  and  obliged  to  raise  the 
Biege  of  Corfu,  after  sacrificing  a  great  many  lives. 

The  campaigns  of  1716  and  1717  in  Hungary,  were  trium- 
phant for  the  armies  of  the  Emperor  ;  Prince  Eugene  gained  a 
brilliant  victory  over  the  Grand  Vizier,  near  Peterwaradin  (Au- 
gust 5tb,)  whii:^h  enabled  him  to  invest  Temeswar,  which  he 
carried  after  a  siege  of  six  months,  and  thus  completed  the 
conquest  of  Hungary.  To  crown  his  glory,  that  great  captain 
next  undertook  the  siege  of  Belgrade,  regarded  by  the  Turks 
as  the  principal  bulwark  of  their  Empire.  The  Grand  Vizier 
marched  to  the  relief  of  the  place,  at  the  head  of  a  formidable 
army.  He  encamped  before  Belgrade,  and  enclosed  the  Impe- 
rial army  within  a  semicircle,  reaching  from  the  Danube  to  the 
Save.  Prince  Eugene  had  then  no  other  alternative  than  to 
leave  his  camp,  and  attack  the  Turks  in  their  intrenchments. 
He  took  his  measures  which  such  address,  that,  in  spite  of  the 
great  superiority  of  the  Turks,  he  forced  them  back  to  their 
camp,  and  put  them  completely  to  rout  (Aug.  IG,  1717.) 

This  victory  was  followed  by  the  reduction  of  Belgrade,  and 
several  other  places  on  the  Save  and  the  Danube.  The  Porte 
began  to  wish  for  peace  ;  and  as  the  Emperor,  who  had  just  been 
attacked  in  Italy  by  the  Spaniards,  was  equally  desirous  to  put 
an  end  to  the  war,  both  parties  agreed  to  accept  the  mediation 
of  England  and  Holland.  A  congress  was  opened  at  Passaro- 
witz,  a  small  town  in  Servia,  near  the  mouth  of  the  Morau.  A 
peace  was  there  concluded  between  the  three  belligerent  powers 
(July  21,  1718,)  on  the  basis  of  the  UH  possidetis.  The  Empe- 
ror retained  Temeswar,  Orsova,  Belgrade,  and  the  part  of  Wal- 
lachia  lying  on  this  side  of  the  river  Aluta ;  as  also  Servia,  ac- 
cording to  the  limits  determined  by  the  treaty,  and  both  banks 
of  the  Save,  from  the  Drino  to  the  Unna.  The  Venetians  lost 
the  Morea,  but  they  retained  several  places  in  Herzegovina, 
Dahnatia,  and  Albania,  which  they  had  conquered  during  the 
war.  The  Porte  restored  to  them  the  Island  of  Cerigo  in  ihp 
Arciiipelago. 


6s  CHAPTER  IX. 

The  success  of  Charles  VI.  in  this  war  procured  some  new 
advantages  to  his  house,  on  the  part  of  the  States  of  Hungary. 
The  Diet  of  1687,  in  vesting  the  hereditary  right  of  that  king- 
acm  in  the  Emperor  Leopold  I.,  had  restricted  that  right,  solely 
tA  the  male  descendants  of  the  House  of  Austria ;  and  Charles 
VI.,  on  his  accession  to  the  throne,  had  acknowledged  the  elec- 
tive right  of  the  States,  in  case  he  should  happen  to  die  without 
leaving  any  male  offspring.  This  prince,  finding  afterwards 
that  he  had  no  other  children  left  than  the  two  daughters  by  his 
marriage  with  Elizabeth  princess  of  Brunswick,  and  being  desi- 
rous of  securing  to  them  the  succession  of  Hungary  as  well  as 
his  other  estates,  assembled  a  Diet  at  Presburg  (1722,)  and  there 
engaged  the  States  of  the  kingdom  to  extend  the  right  of  suc- 
cession to  females,  according  to  the  order  which  he  had  estab- 
lished in  the  Austrian  Pragmatic  Sanction,  and  published  some 
3^ears  before. 

A  revolution  happened  in  the  government  of  Sweden  imme- 
diately after  the  death  of  Charles  XII.,  and  before  the  great  war 
of  the  North  was  quite  ended.  Reduced  to  a  state  of  great  dis- 
tress by  the  folly,  ambition,  and  inflexible  obstinacy  of  that  prince, 
Sweden  saw  her  finest  provinces  occupied  by  the  enemy,  her 
commerce  annihilated,  her  armies  and  her  fleets  destroyed. 
They  attributed  these  disasters  chiefly  to  the  absolute  power  of 
Charles  XII.,  and  the  abuse  he  had  made  of  it.  The  only  reme- 
dy for  so  many  evils,  they  conceived,  was  to  abolish  a  power 
which  had  become  so  pernicious  to  the  State.  As  Charles  had 
never  been  married,  the  throne,  according  to  the  hereditary  law 
established  in  Sweden,  passed  to  the  son  of  the  dutchess  of  Hol- 
stein-Gottorp,  eldest  sister  of  Charles  ;  but  the  Senate  of  Sweden 
preferred  to  him  the  princess  Ulrica  Eleonora,  younger  sister  of 
the  late  king;  because  of  the  declaration  she  had  made,  renoun- 
cing all  absolute  power,  and  consenting  to  hold  the  crown  only 
by  the  free  election  of  the  States  of  the  kingdom.  The  States, 
in  an  assembly  held  at  Stockholm,  in  the  beginning  of  1719,  de 
clared  the  throne  vacant,  and  then  proceeded  to  the  election  oi 
the  princess.  With  their  act  of  election,  they  presented  her  with 
a  new  form  of  government,  and  an  act  known  by  the  name  of 
the  Royal  Assurance,  which  imposed  new  limitations  on  the 
royal  authorit}^  The  princess  signed  these  acts  (February  21,) 
and  the  States  declared  that  whoever  should  attempt  to  restore 
absolute  power,  should  be  considered  as  a  traitor  to  his  country. 

The  government  was  intrusted  to  the  queen  conjunctly  with 
tl^e  Senate ;  while  the  legislative  power  was  reserved  to  the 
Slates,  to  meet  regularly  every  three  years.  The  queen  had 
the  right  of  proposing  bills  or  ordinances  ;    but   before   these 


PERIOD  vm.    A.  D.  1713—1789.  6& 

coTild  have  the  force  of  law,  they  were  to  be  submitted  to  the 
examination  of  the  States,  without  whose  consent  war  was  never 
to  be  proclaimed.  As  for  the  deliberations  of  the  Senate,  it  was 
resolved,  that  they  should  be  decided  by  a  plurality  of  suffrages, 
that  the  queen  should  have  two  votes,  and  a  casting  vote  be- 
sides. Thus,  the  chief  power  was  vested  in  the  hands  of  the 
Senate,  the  members  of  which  resumed  their  ancient  title  of 
Senators  of  the  kingdom,  instead  of  that  of  Counsellors  to  the 
King,  which  had  been  bestowed  on  them  at  the  revolution  of 
1680.  Ulrica  Eleonora  afterwards  resigned  the  crown  to  her 
husband  prince  Frederic  of  Hesse-Cassel.  The  States,  in  their 
election  of  that  prince  (May  22,  1720,)  ordained  that  the  Queen, 
in  case  she  should  survive  her  husband,  should  be  reinstated  in 
her  rights,  and  resume  the  crown,  without  the  necessity  of  a  new 
deliberation  of  the  States.  Frederic,  by  the  Royal  Assurance, 
and  the  form  of  government  which  he  signed,  agreed  to  certain 
new  modifications  of  the  royal  power,  especially  concerning  ap- 
pointments to  places  of  trust.  By  these  different  stipulations, 
and  the  changes  which  took  place  in  consequence,  the  power  of 
the  Swedish  kings  was  gradually  reduced  to  very  narrow  limits. 
It  was  so  much  the  more  easy  to  make  encroachments  on  the 
royal  power,  as  the  King,  by  a  radical  defect  in  the  new  form 
of  government,  had  no  constitutional  means  of  preserving  the 
little  authority  that  was  left  him. 

The  death  of  Augustus  II.  of  Poland,  occasioned  new  dis- 
turbances, which  passed  from  the  North  to  the  South  of  Europe 
and  brought  about  great  changes  in  Italy.  Louis  XV.  took  the 
opportunity  of  that  event  to  replace  Stanislaus  on  the  throne  of 
Poland,  who  was  his  father-in-law,  and  the  former  protege  of 
Charles  XII.  The  Primate,  and  the  greater  part  of  the  Polish 
nobility  being  in  the  interest  of  that  prince,  he  was  consequently 
elected  (Sept.  12,  1733.) 

Anne  Iwanowna,  dutchess-dowager  of  Courland,  and  niece  of 
Peter  the  Great,  had  just  ascended  the  throne  of  Russia ;  having 
succeeded  Peter  II.  (June  20,  1730,)  who  was  cut  off  in  the 
flower  of  his  age  without  leaving  any  progeny.  The  grandees, 
in  conferring  the  crown  on  Anne,  had  limited  her  power  by  a 
capitulation  which  they  made  her  sign  at  Mittau,  but  which  she 
cancelled  immediately  on  her  arrival  at  Moscow.  That  princess, 
dreading  the  influence  of  France  in  Poland,  in  case  of  a  war 
between  Russia  and  the  Porte,  espoused  the  interests  of  Augus- 
tus III.,  Elector  of  Saxony,  and  son  of  the  late  King,  whom  she 
wished  to  place  on  the  Polish  throne.  Part  of  the  Polish  nobility, 
withdrawing  from  the  field  of  election,  and  supported  by  a  Rus- 
sian army,  proclaimed  that  prince,  in  opposition  to  Stanislaus., 
ihe  protege  of  France. 


70  CHAPTER  IX. 

The  Russians,  reinforced  by  the  Saxon  troops,  seized  Warsa-w 
and  compelled  Stanislaus  to  retire  to  Dantzic,  where  he  was  be- 
sieged by  a  Russian  army,  under  command  of  Field-Marshal 
Munich,  and  obliged  to  seek  safety  in  flight.  Louis  XV.  wish- 
ing to  avenge  this  injury  offered  to  his  father-in-law,  and  not 
being  in  a  condition  to  attack  Russia,  resolved  to  declare  war 
against  the  Emperor ;  on  the  ground  that  he  had  marched  an 
army  to  the  frontiers  of  Poland,  for  supporting  the  election  of 
the  Saxon  prince. 

Spain  and  Sardinia  espoused  the  cause  of  Stanislaus,  which 
seemed  to  them  to  be  the  cause  of  Kings  in  general ;  while  the 
Emperor  saw  himself  abandoned   by   England    and   Holland, 
whose  assistance  he  thought  he  might  claim,  in  virtue  of  the 
guarantee  which  the  treaty  of  Vienna  had  stipulated  in  his  fa- 
vour.    But  these  powers  judged  it  more  for  their  interests  to 
preserve  strict  neutrality  in  this  war,  on  the  assurance  which 
France  had  given  the  States-General,  not  to  make  the  Austrian 
Netherlands  the  theatre  of  hostilities.     The  French  commenced 
operations  by  directing  the  Count  de  Belleisle  to  seize  Lorraine, 
the  sovereign  of  which,  Francis  Stephen,  son  of  Duke  Leopold 
was  to  have  married  Maria  Theresa,  eldest  daughter  of  the  Em- 
peror  Charles  VL      About  the  same  time.  Marshal  Berwick 
passed  the  Rhine  at  the  head  of  the  French  army,  and  reduced 
the  fortress  of  Kehl.     By  thus  attacking  a  fortress  of  the  Em- 
pire, France  gave  the  Emperor  a  pretext  for  engaging  the  Ger- 
manic Body  in  his  quarrel.     In  fact,  he  declared  war  against 
France  and  her  allies  ;  which  induced  the  French  to  seize  seve- 
ral places  on  the  Moselle,  and  to  reduce  the  fortress  of  Philips- 
burg,  at  the  siege  of  which.  Marshal  Berwick  was  slain  (June 
12,  1734.) 

The  principal  scene  of  the  war  then  lay  in  Italy ;  where  the 
campaigns  of  1734  and  1735  were  most  glorious  for  the  allies. 
After  the  two  victories  which  they  had  gained  over  the  Impe- 
rialists near  Parma  (June  29,)  and  Guastalia  (Sept.  17,)  they 
made  themselves  master  of  all  Austrian  Lombardy,  with  the 
single  exception  of  Mantua,  which  they  laid  under  blockade. 
A  Spanish  army,  commanded  by  the  Duke  of  Montemar,  ac- 
companied by  the  Infante  Don  Carlos,  directed  their  march  on 
Naples,  which  threw  open  its  gates  to  the  Spaniards.  The 
victory  which  they  gained  over  the  Imperialists  at  Bitonto 
(May  25,)  decided  the  fate  of  the  kingdom  of  Naples.  After 
this  conquest,  the  Infante  passed  to  Sicily.  He  soon  reduced 
that  island,  and  was  crowned  King  of  the  Two  Sicilies  at  Pa- 
'ermo  (July  3,  1735.) 

The  Emperor,  overwhelmed  by  so  many  reverses,  and  unabl** 


,  PERIOD  vm.     A.  D.  1713—1789.  7J 

to  withstand  the  powers  leagued  against  him,  eagerly  solicited 
asbislance  from  Russia.  The  Empress  Anne,  who  saw  the  war 
terminated  in  Poland,  and  Augustus  in  quiet  possession  of  the 
tR"<"one,  despatched  a  body  of  ten  thousand  auxiliaries,  under 
ihe  command  of  General  Count  de  Lacy,  into  Germany,  m  ihe 
spring  of  the  year  1735.  These  troops,  the  first  Russians  who 
had  appeared  in  that  country,  joined  the  Imperial  army  on  the 
Rhine,  which  was  commanded  by  Prince  Eugene.  That  Gene- 
ral, however,  did  not  succeed  in  his  design  of  transferring  the 
seat  of  war  to  Lorraine. 

Matters  were  in  this  situation,  when  the  maritime  powers  in- 
terposed their  good  offices  for  restoring  peace  between  the  Em- 
peror and  the  States  leagued  against  him.  Cardinal  Fleury, 
perceiving  that  their  mediation  was  not  agreeable  to  the  Impe- 
rial Court,  took  the  resolution  of  concerting  a  secret  negotia- 
tion with  the  Emperor,  the  result  of  which  was  a  treaty  of  pre- 
liminaries; although  much  deliberation  was  necessary  before 
coming  to  the  conclusion  of  a  definitive  peace.  This  was  at 
length  signed  at  Vienna,  between  France,  the  Emperor,  and  the 
Empire,  on  the  8th  of  November  1738.  The  former  treaties  of 
Westphalia,  Nimeguen,  Ryswick,  Utrecht,  and  the  Quadruple 
Alliance,  were  admitted  as  the  basis  of  this  treaty.  Stanislaus 
renounced  the  throne  of  Poland,  and  retained  the  title  only 
during  his  life.  They  gave  him,  by  way  of  compensation,  the 
dutchies  of  Lorraine  and  Bar,  on  condition  that,  at  his  death, 
they  should  revert  with  full  right  to  France.  The  single  coun- 
ty of  Falkenstein,  with  its  appurtenances  and  dependencies, 
was  reserved  for  Francis,  Duke  of  Lorraine.  In  exchano^e  for 
the  dutchy  which  he  abdicated,  that  prince  received  the  grand 
dutchy  of  Tuscany,  whose  last  possessor,  John  Gaston,  of  the 
House  of  Medici,  had  just  died  without  leaving  any  posterity 
(1737.)  The  kingdom  of  the  Two  Sicilies,  with  the  ports  of 
Tuscany,  were  secured  to  Don  Carlos  and  his  descendants, 
male  and  female ;  and,  in  failure  of  them,  to  the  younger  bro- 
thers of  that  prince,  and  their  descendants.  On  his  part,  Don 
Carlos  ceded  to  the  Emperor  the  dutchies  of  Parma  and  Pla- 
centia,  and  even  renounced  the  rights  which  former  treaties  had 
given  him  over  the  grand  dutchy  of  Tuscany.  They  restored 
to  the  Emperor  all  that  had  been  taken  from  him  in  the  pro- 
vinces of  Milan  and  Mantua;  with  the  reservation  of  the  dis 
tricts  of  Novara  and  Tortona,  which  he  was  obliged  to  cede  to 
Charles  Emanuel  III.,  King  of  Sardinia,  together  with  San- 
Fidele,  Torre  di  Forti,  Gravedo,  and  Campo-Maggiore  ;  as  also 
the  territorial  superiority  of  the  fiefs  commonly  called  Langhes, 
to  be  held  entirely  as  Imperial  fiefs.     Finally,  Fi'ance  under- 


9^  CHAPTER  IX. 

cook,  m  the  most  authentic  form,  to  guarantee  the  Pragmatic 
Sanction  of  the  Emperor. 

The  Kings  of  Spain  and  Sardinia  were  not  satisfied  with  rhe 
conditions  of  this  treaty.  The  former  wished  to  preserve  the 
ji;Tand  dutchy  of  Tuscany,  with  the  dutchies  of  Parma  and 
Placentia  ;  and  the  other  had  expected  to  obtain  a  larger  portion 
^f  Lombardy.  Thus,  these  princes  long  hesitated  to  admit  the 
articles  agreed  to  between  the  courts  of  France  and  Vienna  ; 
nor  did  they  give  their  consent  until  the  year  1739. 

While  these  disputes  about  the  succession  of  Poland  occupied 
a  great  part  of  Europe,  a  war  broke  out  between  the  Turks  and 
the  Russians,  in  which  Austria  was  also  implicated.  The  Em- 
jress  Anne  of  Russia,  wishing  to  recover  Azoff,  and  repair  the 
lOss  which  Peter  the  Great  had  sustained  in  his  unfortunate 
campaign  on  the  Pruth,  took  advantage  of  the  war  between  ti::e 
Turks  and  the  Persians,  to  form  an  alliance  with  Khouli  Khan, 
the  famous  conqueror  of  the  East,  who  had  just  subverted 
the  ancient  dynasty  of  the  Sophis  of  Persia.  The  incursions 
which  the  Tartars  had  made  at  different  times  into  the  Russian 
provinces,  without  the  Porte  thinking  proper  to  check  them, 
served  as  a  motive  for  the  Empress  to  order  an  expedition 
against  the  Turks  (1735,)  and  to  declare  war  against  the  Porte 
soon  after.  It  was  during  the  campaign  of  1736  that  Count 
Lacy  made  himself  master  of  Azoff,  and  that  Marshal  Munich, 
after  having  forced  the  lines  at  Perekop,  penetrated  into  the  in- 
terior of  the  Crnuea ;  but  having  in  that  expedition  lost  many 
of  his  men  by  famine  and  disease,  he  found  it  impossible  to 
maintain  himself  in  that  peninsula. 

The  Emperor  offered  himself  at  first  as  a  mediator  between 
the  belligerent  powers.  A  conference  was  opened  at  Niemerow 
in  Poland,  which  proved  fruitless.  The  Russians  who  had  jus^ 
taken  Oczakoff,  emboldened  by  their  success,  were  desirous  tc 
continue  the  war  ;  while  the  Emperor,  without  reflecting  on  the 
bad  condition  of  his  military  strength,  and  the  loss  which  he 
had  sustained  by  the  death  of  the  celebrated  prince  Eugene 
(April  21,  1736,)  thought  only  of  sharing  the  conquest  with  the 
Russians.  He  then  laid  aside  the  character  of  mediator,  to 
act  on  the  defensive  against  the  Turks  ;  but  he  had  soon  rea- 
son to  repent  of  this  measure.  The  Turks,  encouraged  by  the 
famous  Count  de  Bonneval,  gained  considerable  advantages 
over  the  Austrians  ;  and  in  course  of  the  campaigns  of  1737 
and  1738,  they  dislodged  them  from  Wallachia  and  Servia,  re- 
took Orsova,  and  laid  siege  to  the  city  of  Belgrade  in  1739. 

The  Court  of  Vienna,  in  a  state  of  great  consternation,  had 
recourse  to  the  mediation  of  M.  de  Villeneuve.  the  French  am- 


PERIOD  VIII.     A.  D.  1713— 17S9.  T8 

bassador  a^.  Constantinople,  to  sue  for  peace  with  the  Porte ; 
Count  Neipperg,  who  was  sent  by  the  Emperor  to  the  Turkish 
camp  before  Belgrade,  signed  there,  with  too  much  precipita- 
tion, a  treat 3^  under  very  disadvantageous  terms  for  Austria  : 
and  the  Empress  Anne,  who  had  intrusted  the  French  ambas- 
sador with  her  full  powers,  consented  also  to  a  peace  very  un- 
favourable for  Russia,  notwithstanding  the  brilliant  victory 
vvhich  Marshal  Munich  had  gained  over  the  Turks  in  the  neigh- 
bourhood of  Choczim  (Oct.  28,  1739,)  which  was  followed  by 
the  capture  of  that  place,  and  the  conquest  of  Moldavia  by  the 
Russians. 

The  Emperor,  by  that  peace,  ceded  to  the  Porte,  Belgrade, 
Sabatz,  and  Orsova,  with  Austrian  Servia  and  Wallachia.  The 
Danube,  the  Save,  and  the  Unna,  were  again  settled  as  the 
boundary  between  the  two  Empires  ;  and  Austria  preserved 
nothino-  but  the  Banat  of  Temeswar,  of  all  that  had  been  ceded 
to  her  by  the  peace  of  Passarowitz.  The  Austrian  merchants, 
however,  were  granted  free  passage  into  and  out  of  the  king- 
doms and  provinces  of  the  Ottoman  Empire,  both  by  sea  and 
land,  in  their  own  vessels,  with  the  flag  and  letters-patent  of  the 
Emperor,  on  condition  of  their  paying  the  accustomed  dues. 

Russia  surrendered  all  her  conquests,  and  among  others 
Choczim  and  Moldavia.  The  boundaries  between  the  two  Em- 
pires were  regulated  by  different  special  agreements.  The  for- 
tress of  Azoff  was  demolished  ;  and  it  was  stipulated  that  Russia 
should  not  construct  any  new  fortress  within  thirty  versts  of  that 
place,  on  the  one  side  ;  nor  the  Porte  within  thirty  versts,  on  the 
side  of  the  Cuban.  Russia  was  even  interdicted  from  having 
and  constructing  fleets  or  other  naval  stores,  either  on  the  Sea 
of  Azoff  or  the  Black  Sea.  The  Zaporog  Cossacs  continued 
under  the  dominion  of  Russia,  which  obtained  also  from  the 
Porte  the  acknowledgment  of  the  Imperial  title.  The  peace  be- 
tween Russia  and  the  Porte  was  declared  perpetual ;  but  they 
limited  that  between  Austria  and  the  Porte  to  twenty-seven 
vears.  The  latter  was  renewed  under  the  Empress  Maria 
Theresa  ;  and  rendered  also  perpetual,  by  an  agreement  which 
thot  princess  concluded  with  the  Porte,  May  25,  1747. 

The  succession  to  Charle«  VI,.  the  last  male  descendant  of  the 
House  of  Hapsburg,  who  died  October  20th  1740,  kindled  a  new 
general  war  in  Europe.  That  prince,  in  the  year  1713,  had 
published  an  order  of  succession,  known  by  the  name  of  the 
Pragmatic  Sanction,  which  decreed,  that  faihng  his  lineal  heirs- 
male,  his  own  daughters  should  succeed  in  preference  to  those 
of  his  brother  the  Emperor  Joseph  I. ;  and  that  the  succession 
of  his  daughters  should  be  regulated  according  to  the  order  of 


74  CHAPTER  IX. 

primogeniture,  so  thai  the  elder  should  be  preferred  to  the 
younger,  and  that  she  alone  should  inherit  his  whole  estates. 
He  took  great  pains  to  get  this  order  approved  by  the  differen*. 
hereditary  States  of  Austria,  as  well  as  by  the  daughters  of  his 
brother  Joseph  I.,  and  by  the  husbands  of  these  princesses,  the 
Electors  of  Saxony  and  Bavaria.  He  even  obtained,  by  degrees. 
the  sanction  of  all  the  principal  powers  of  Europe.  But  though 
his  external  policy  had  been  very  active  in  securing  the  rights 
of  his  eldest  daughter  Maria  Theresa,  he  neglected  those  mea- 
sures to  which  he  ought  rather  to  have  directed  his  attention. 
The  wretched  state  in  which  he  left  his  finances  and  his  army, 
encouraged  a  number  of  pretenders,  who  disputed  the  succession 
with  that  princess. 

Of  these  claimants,  the  principal  was  the  Elector  of  Bavaria, 
who,  as  being  descended  from  Anne  of  Austria,  daughter  of  Fer- 
dinand I.,  advanced  the  claims  of  the  females  of  the  elder  line, 
against  those  of  the  younger  ;  grounded  on  the  contract  of  mar- 
riage betw^een  that  princess  and  Albert  V.  Duke  of  Bavaria,  as 
well  as  on  the  will  of  Ferdinand  I.  The  Elector  of  Saxony, 
then  King  of  Poland,  although  he  had  approved  of  the  Prag- 
matic Sanction,  claimed  the  succession,  as  being  husband  of  the 
elder  of  the  daughters  of  Joseph  I.,  and  in  virtue  of  a  compact  be- 
tween the  two  brothers,  Joseph  I.  and  Charles  VI.,  which  provided, 
that  the  daughters  of  Joseph  should,  under  all  circumstances,  be 
preferred  to  those  of  Charles. 

Philip  v..  King  of  Spain,  laid  claim  to  the  kingdoms  of  Bo- 
hemia and  Hungary.  He  grounded  his  rights  on  an  agreement 
(1617)  between  Philip  III.  of  Spain  and  Ferdinand  of  Austria, 
afterwards  the  Emperor  Ferdinand  II.  ;  according  to  which 
these  kingdoms  were  to  pass  to  the  descendants  of  Philip  III., 
failing  the  male  line  of  Ferdinand.  A  war  had  arisen  between 
Spain  and  England  on  account  of  the  clandestine  traffic  which 
the  English  carried  on  in  Spanish  America,  under  favour  of  the 
contrnct  called  the  Assieiito.  Philip  V.  thought  of  turning  these 
differences  relative  to  the  Austrian  succession  to  his  own  advan- 
tage, either  for  drawing  France  into  an  alliance  with  him  against 
Engfland,  or  to  procure  for  his  son  Don  Philip  a  settlement  in 
Italy,  at  the  expense  of  the  daughter  of  Charles  VI. 

Frederic  II.,  Kinsf  of  Prussia,  who  had  just  succeeded  his 
father  Frederic  William  I.,  judged  this  a  favourable  time  for 
turning  his  attention  to  the  affairs  of  his  own  kingdom,  and  pro- 
fitting  by  the  troops  and  treasures  which  his  father  had  left. 
With  this  view,  he  revived  certain  claims  of  his  family  tc 
several  dutchies  and  principalities  in  Silesia,  of  which  his  an- 
cestors, he  maintained,  had  been  unjustly  deprived  by  Austria 


PERIOD  vm.     A.  D.  1713—1789.  76 

Finally,  the  King-  of  Sardinia  laid  claim  to  the  whole  dutchy  of 
Milan ;  grounded  on  the  contract  of  marriage  between  his  an- 
cestor, Charles  Emanuel  Duke  of  Savoy,  and  the  daughter  of 
Philip  II.  of  Spain.  The  Court  of  France,  wishing  to  avail 
herself  of  these  circumstances  for  humbling  Austria,  her  ancient 
rival,  set  on  foot  a  negotiation  with  the  Elector  of  Bavaria,  and 
engaged  to  procure  him  the  Imperial  crown,  with  a  part  of  thr 
territories,  of  which  he  had  deprived  Austria. 

An  alliance  was  concluded  between  France,  Spain,  and  the 
Elector  of  Bavaria,  which  was  joined  also  by  the  Kings  of  Prus- 
sia, Poland,  Sardinia,  and  the  two  Sicilies ;  and  to  prevent 
Russia  from  affording  assistance  to  Maria  Theresa,  they  pre- 
vailed on  Sweden  to  declare  war  against  that  power.  The 
Court  of  Vienna  having  complained  of  these  resolutions  of  the 
French  Cabinet,  which  were  directly  opposed  to  the  conditions 
of  the  last  treaty  of  Vienna,  Cardinal  Fleury,  who  had  been 
drawn  into  that  war  by  the  intrigues  of  M.  De  Belleisle,  alleged 
in  his  own  justification,  that  the  guarantee  of  the  Pragmatic 
Sanction,  which  France  had  undertaken  by  that  treaty,  pre- 
supposed the  clause  Sine  prejudicio  tertii ;  that  is  to  say,  that 
France  never  intended,  by  that  guarantee,  to  prejudice  the  just 
claims  of  the  Elector  of  Bavaria. 

The  most  active  of  the  enemies  of  Maria  Theresa  was  the 
King  of  Prussia,  who  entered  Silesia  in  the  month  of  December 
1740.  While  he  was  occupied  in  making  that  conquest,  the 
Elector  of  Bavaria,  reinforced  by  an  army  of  French  auxiliaries, 
took  possession  of  Upper  Austria  ;  but,  instead  of  marching  di- 
rectly upon  Vienna,  he  turned  towards  Bohemia,  with  the  inten- 
tion of  conquering  it.  Meantime,  the  Electoral  Diet,  which  was 
assembled  at  Frankfort,  conferred  the  Imperial  dignity  on  that 
prince,  (Jan.  24,  1742,)  who  took  the  name  of  Charles  \II. 
Nothing  appeared  then  to  prevent  the  dismemberment  of  the 
Austrian  monarchy,  according  to  the  plan  of  the  allied  powers. 
The  Elector  of  Bavaria  was  to  have  Bohemia,  the  Tyrol,  and 
the  provinces  of  Upper  Austria;  the  Elector  of  Saxony  was  to 
have  Moravia  and  Upper  Silesia  ;  and  the  King  of  Prussia  the 
remainder  of  Silesia.  As  for  Austrian  Lombardy,  it  was  des- 
tined for  Don  Philip,  the  Infante  of  Spain.  Nothing  was  left  to 
the  Queen,  except  the  kingdom  of  Hungary,  with  Lower  Aus- 
tria, the  Dutchies  of  Carinthia,  Stiria  and  Carniola,  and  the 
Belgic  Provinces.  In  the  midst  of  these  imminent  dangers, 
Maria  Theresa  displayed  a  courage  beyond  her  age  and  sex. 
Aided  by  the  supplies  of  money  which  England  and  Holland 
furnished  her,  and  by  the  generous  efforts  which  the  Hungarian 
nation  made  in  her  favour,  she  succeeded  in  calming  the  storm 


76  CHAPTER  IX. 

repuiaing  the  enemy  with   vigour,  and  dissolving  the  grand 
league  which  had  been  formed  against  her. 

The  King  of  Prussia,  in  consequence  of  the  two  victories 
which  he  gained  at  Molwitz  (April  10,  1741,)  and  Czaslau  (May 
17,  1742,)  had  succeeded  in  conquering  Silesia,  Moravia,  and 
part  of  Bohemia.  It  was  of  importance  for  the  Queen  to  get  rid 
of  so  formidable  an  enemy.  The  King  of  Great  Britain  having 
interposed,  certain  preliminaries  were  signed  at  Breslau,  which 
were  followed  by  a  definitive  peace,  concluded  at  Berlin  (July 
28,  1742.)  The  Queen,  by  this  treaty,  gave  up  to  the  King  of 
Prussia  Silesia  and  the  Comte  of  Glatz,  excepting  the  princi- 
pality of  Teschen,  and  part  of  the  principalities  of  Trappau, 
Jagerndorf,  and  Neisse.  The  example  of  Prussia  was  soon  fol- 
lowed by  the  King  of  Poland.  This  Prince,  alarmed  at  the  sud- 
den increase  of  the  Prussian  power,  not  only  acceded  to  the 
treaty  of  Berlin,  but  even  formed  an  alliance  with  the  Queen 
against  Prussia. 

The  King  of  Sardinia,  who  dreaded  the  preponderance  of  the 
Bourbons  in  Italy,  likewise  abandoned  the  grand  alliance,  and 
attached  himself  to  the  Queen's  interests,  by  a  compact  which 
was  signed  at  Turin.  The  French  and  Spaniards  then  turned 
their  arms  against  that  Prince  ;  and  while  the  King  of  the  two 
Sicilies  joined  his  forces  with  the  Spaniards,  an  English  squad- 
ron appeared  before  Naples,  threatened  to  bombard  the  city,  and 
compelled  tlie  King  to  recall  his  troops  from  Lombardy,  and  re- 
main neutral.  This  was  not  the  only  piece  of  service  which 
George  II.  rendered  the  young  Queen.  Being  one  of  the 
powers  that  guaranteed  the  Pragmatic  Sanction,  he  sent  to  her 
aid  an  army  composed  of  English,  Hanoverians,  and  Hessians. 
This,  known  by  the  name  of  the  Pragmatic  Army,  fought  and 
defeated  the  French  at  Dettingen  (June  27,  1743.)  They  were 
afterwards  reinforced  by  a  body  of  troops  which  the  States- 
General  sent,  in  fulfilment  of  the  engagement  which  they  had 
contracted  with  the  Court  of  Vienna.  Lastly,  that  prince,  in  order 
to  attach  the  King  of  Sardinia  more  closely  to  the  interests  of 
Austria,  set  on  foot  a  treaty  at  Worms,  by  which  the  Queen 
ceded  to  the  King  of  Sardinia  the  territory  of  Pavia,  between 
the  Po  and  the  Tesino,  part  of  the  dutchy  of  Placentia,  and  the 
district  of  Anghiera,  with  the  rights  which  they  claimed  to  the 
marquisate  of  Finale.  The  King,  on  his  part,  abandoned  all 
claims  to  the  Milanois  ;  and  engaged  to  support  an  army  of 
40,000  men  for  the  service  of  the  Queen,  in  consideration  of  the 
supplies  which  England  promised  to  pay  him. 

This  soon  changed  the  aspect  of  affairs.  The  Queen  recon- 
quered Austria  and  Bohemia.     She  expelled  the  French  from 


PERIOD  vm.     A.  D.  1713 — 1789.  77 

Bavaria,  and  drove  them  even  beyond  the  Rhine  The  Emperor 
Charles  VII.  vas  obliged  to  transfer  his  residence  from  Munich 
10  Frankfort  on  the  Maine.  France,  who  had  never  acted  till 
tnen  but  as  the  ally  of  the  Elector  of  Bavaria,  resolved,  m  con- 
sequence of  these  events,  formally  to  declare  war  against  the 
Queen  and  the  King  of  Great  Britain  (March  15,  1744.)  The 
King  of  the  Two  Sicilies  broke  his  neutrality,  and  again  joined 
his  troops  with  the  Spanish  army,  who  were  acting  against  the 
Queen  and  her  ally  the  King  of  Sardinia.  The  war  was  now 
carried  on  with  fresh  vigour.  Louis  XV.  attacked  the  Austrian 
Netherlands  in  person,  and  negotiated  a  treaty  of  Union,  at 
Frankfort,  between  the  Emperor,  and  several  principal  States 
of  the  Empire.  By  this  treaty  it  was  stipulated,  that  the  allied 
princes  should  unite  their  forces,  and  constrain  the  Queen  to 
acknowledge  the  Emperor  Charles  VII.,  and  reinstate  him  in 
his  hereditary  dominions. 

It  was  in  consequence  of  this  treaty,  that  the  King  of  Prussia 
again  commenced  the  war,  and  made  an  attack  on  Bohemia. 
Prince  Charles  of  Lorraine,  who  had  invaded  Alsace,  at  the 
head  of  an  Austrian  army,  was  obliged  to  repass  the  Rhine,  and 
march  to  the  relief  of  that  kingdom.  The  French  penetrated 
into  Germany,  and  while  Louis  XV.  laid  siege  to  Friburg  in 
Brisgaw,  General  Seckendorf,  who  commanded  the  Imperial 
army,  reconquered  Bavaria.  Charles  VII.,  who  was  then  re- 
stored to  his  estates,  returned  to  Munich. 

During  these  transactions,  an  unforeseen  event  happened, 
which  changed  the  state  of  affairs.  The  Emperor  died  at  the 
early  age  of  forty-seven  (Jan.  20,  1745,)  and  his  son  Maximilian 
Joseph  II.,  used  all  expedition  to  make  up  matters  with  the 
Queen.  By  the  special  treaty,  which  he  concluded  with  her  at 
Fuessen  (April  22,  1745,)  he  renounced  the  claims  which  his 
father  had  made  to  the  succession  of  Charles  VI.  He  again 
signed  the  Pragmatic  Sanction,  satisfied  wdth  being  maintained 
in  the  possession  of  his  patrimonial  estates.  The  French  had 
in  vain  endeavoured  to  prevent  the  election  of  the  Grand  Duke 
of  Tuscany  to  the  Imperial  throne,  who  had  been  associated 
with  his  wife,  Maria  Theresa,  in  the  government  of  her  heredi- 
tary dominions.  That  prince,  however,  was  elected  at  Frank- 
foit,  under  the  protection  of  the  Austrian  and  Pragmatic  armies. 

An  alliance  had  been  concluded  at  Warsaw  between  Maria 
Theresa,  Poland,  England,  and  Holland  (Jan.  8,  1745.)  Au- 
gustus III.  had  engaged,  as  Elector  of  Saxony,  to  despatch  an 
army  of  thirty  thousand  men  to  the  Queen's  assistance,  in  con- 
sideration of  the  subsidies  which  England  and  Holland  had  pro- 
mised to  pay  him.     That  army  being  joined  by  the  Austrians, 

7^ 


78  CHAPTER   IX 

had  advanced  into  Silesia,  where  they  sustained  a  total  defea' 
near  Hohenfriedberg  (June  4.)  The  victorious  King  of  Prussia 
returned  to  Bohemia,  and  there  defeated  the  allies  a  second 
time,  near  Sorr,  in  the  Circle  of  Konigratz  (Sept.  30.)  He  then 
attacked  Saxony,  in  order  to  compel  the  Queen  to  make  peace, 
by  harassmg  the  Elector  her  ally.  The  victory,  which  he  gain- 
ed over  the  Saxons  at  Kesselsdorf  (Dec.  15,)  made  him  master 
of  Dresden,  and  the  whole  Electorate,  which  he  laid  under  con- 
tribution. These  victories  accelerated  the  peace  between  the 
King  of  Prussia,  the  Queen,  and  the  Elector  of  Saxony,  which 
was  siofned  at  Dresden,  under  the  mediation  of  Great  Britain. 
The  King  of  Prussia  restored  to  the  Elector  all  his  estates,  the 
latter  promising  to  pay  him  a  million  of  Imperial  crowns.  The 
^ueen  gave  up  Silesia  and  the  Comte  of  Glatz ;  while  the  King, 
as  the  Elector  of  Brandenburg,  acquiesced  in  the  election  of 
Francis  I.  to  the  Imperisl  throne.  The  King  of  England,  the 
Dutch,  and  the  States  of  the  Empire,  undertook  to  guarantee 
these  stipulations. 

The  treaties  of  Fuessen  and  Presden  restored  tranquillity  to 
the  Empire ;  but  the  war  was  continued  in  the  Netherlands, 
Italy,  and  in  the  East  and  West  Indies.  The  French,  under 
the  conduct  of  Marshal  Saxe,  distinguished  themselves  in  the 
Netherlands.  The  victories  which  they  gained  over  the  allie? 
at  Fontenoy  (May  11,  1745,)  andatRocoux  (Oct.  11, 1746,)  pro- 
cured them  the  conquest  of  all  the  Austrian  Netherlands,  excep* 
the  towns  and  fortresses  of  Luxemburg,  Limburg,  and  Gueldres 

Charles  Edward,  son  of  the  Pretender,  encouraged  and  assist- 
ed by  the  Court  of  France,  landed  in  Scotland  in  August  1745. 
Being  joined  by  a  number  of  partisans,  v/hom  he  found  in  that 
kingdom,  he  caused  his  father  to  be  proclaimed  at  Perth  and 
Edinburgh,  assuming  to  himself  the  title  of  Prince  of  Wales, 
and  Regent  of  the  three  kingdoms.  The  victory  which  he  gain- 
ed near  Prestonpans  over  the  English  troops,  rendered  him  mas- 
ter of  all  Scotland.  He  next  invaded  England,  took  Carlisle, 
and  advanced  as  far  as  Derby,  spreading  terror  and  consternation 
in  London.  George  II.  was  obliged  to  recall  the  Duke  of  Cum- 
berland, with  his  troops,  from  the  Netherlands.  That  Prince 
drove  back  the  Pretender,  retook  Carlisle,  and  restored  tranquil- 
lity in  Scotland,  by  defeating  the  Rebels  near  Culloden  in  the 
Highlands.  Charles  Edward  was  then  reduced  to  the  necessity 
of  concealing  himself  among  the  mountains,  until  the  month  of 
October  foHowing,  when  he  found  means  to  transport  himself  to 
France. 

The  campaign  of  1745  in  Italy  was  glorious  for  the  French, 
and  their  allies  the  Spaniards.     Tne  Republic  of  Genoa,  being 


PERIOD  viu.     A.  D.  1713 — 1789.  79 

offeDQeQ  at  the  clause  in  the  treaty  of  Worms,  which  took  from 
them  the  marquisate  of  Finale,  espoused  the  cause  of  the  two 
crowns,  and  facilitated  the  junction  of  the  French  army  of  the 
Alps  with  that  of  Lombardy.  One  effect  of  this  junction  was 
tne  conquest  of  Piedmont,  as  also  of  Austrian  Lombardy,  except- 
ing the  cities  of  Turin  and  Mantua,  which  the  allies  had  laid 
under  blockade. 

The  fate  of  the  war,  however,  experienced  a  .new  change  in 
Italy,  at  the  opening  of  the  following  campaign.  Maria  The- 
resa, disengaged  from  the  war  with  Prussia,  sent  considerable 
reinforcements  into  Lombardy,  which  gave  her  arms  a  superi- 
ority over  those  of  the  allies.  The  French  and  Spaniards  were 
stripped  of  all  their  conquests,  and  sustained  a  grand  defeat  at 
Placentia  (June  16,  1746,)  which  obliged  them  to  beat  a  retreat. 
To  add  to  their  misfortunes,  the  new  King  of  Spain,  Ferdinand 
VL,  who  had  just  succeeded  his  father,  Philip  V.,  being  dis- 
pleased with  the  Court  of  France,  and  unfavourably  inclined 
towards  his  brother  Don  Philip,  recalled  all  his  troops  from  Ita- 
ly. The  French  had  then  no  other  alternative  left  than  to  fol- 
low the  Spaniards  in  their  retreat.  Italy  was  abandoned  to  the 
Austrians,  and  the  French  troops  again  returned  to  Provence. 
The  whole  Republic  of  Genoa,  with  its  capital,  fell  into  the 
hands  of  the  Austrians.  The  King  of  Sardinia  took  possession  of 
Finale,  Savona,  and  the  western  part  of  the  Republican  terri- 
ritory.  The  Austrians,  joined  by  the  Piedmontese,  made  a 
descent  on  Provence,  and  undertook  the  siege  of  Antibes. 

An  extraordinary  event  produced  a  diversion  favourable  for 
France,  and  obliged  the  Austrians  and  Piedmontese  to  repass 
the  Alps.  The  Genoese  being  maltreated  by  the  Austrians, 
who  had  burdened  them  with  contributions  and  discretionary 
exactions,  suddenly  rose  against  their  new  masters.  The  in- 
surgents, with  Prince  Doria  at  their  head,  succeeded  in  expel- 
ling them  from  Genoa  (Dec.  1746.)  General  Botta,  who  com- 
manded at  Genoa,  was  obliged  to  abandon  his  stores  and  equip- 
age, that  he  might  the  more  quickly  escape  from  the  territory 
of  the  Republic.  The  siege  of  Antibes  was  raised  ;  the  allies 
repassed  the  Alps,  and  blockaded  Genoa.  But  the  French  hav- 
ing sent  powerful  supplies  by  sea  to  that  city,  and  at  the  same 
time  made  a  vigorous  attack  on  the  side  of  Piedmont,  relieved 
the  Genoese,  and  obliged  the  enemy  to  retreat. 

In  1747,  the  French,  who  were  already  masters  of  the  Aus- 
trian Netherlands,  attacked  and  conquered  Dutch  Flanders. 
They  blamed  the  Dutch  for  having  sent  constant  supplies  ^o 
Maria  Theresa,  for  having  invaded  the  French  territory,  ruw 
granted  a  retreat  through  their  own  to  -iie  enemy's  troops,  aiei 


80  CHAPTER   IX. 

the  battle  of  Fontenoy.  This  invasion  spread  terror  in  the 
province  of  Zealand,  who  thus  saw  themselves  deprived  of  their 
barrier,  and  exposed  to  the  inroads  of  the  French.  The  parti- 
sans of  the  Prince  of  Orange  took  advantage  of  that  circum- 
stance to  restore  the  Stadtholdership.  This  dignity,  as  well  as 
ihat  of  Captain  and  Admiral-General  of  the  Republic,  had  re- 
mained vacant  since  the  death  of  William  III. 

William  IV.,  Prince  of  Nassau-Dietz,  though  he  was  testa- 
mentary heir  to  that  prince,  had  only  obtained  the  Stadtholder- 
ship of  Friesland,  to  which  was  afterwards  added  that  of  Gro- 
nino-en  and  Gueldres ;  but  the  eiforts  which  he  made  to  obtain 
the  other  offices  and  dignities  of  the  ancient  Princes  of  Orange, 
proved  ineffectual.  The  four  provinces  of  Holland,  Zealand, 
Utrecht,  and  Overyssel,  persisted  in  their  free  government,  and 
even  refused  the  Prince  the  office  of  General  of  Infantry,  which  he 
had  requested.  France,  by  attacking  Dutch  Flanders,  contribu- 
ted to  the  elevation  of  William.  There  was  a  general  feeling  in 
his  favour  in  those  provinces  which  had  no  Stadtholder  ;  the  peo- 
ple of  the  different  towns  and  districts  rose  in  succession,  and 
obliged  the  magistrates  to  proclaim  William  IV.  as  Stadtholder 
and  Captain-General.  This  revolution  was  achieved  without 
disturbance  ;  and  without  any  obstacle  on  the  part  of  those  who 
had  an  interest  in  opposing  it,  but  who  were  obliged  to  yield  to 
the  wishes  of  the  people.  They  even  went  so  far  as  to  declare 
the  Stadtholdership,  as  well  as  the  offices  of  Captain  and  Admi- 
ral-General, hereditary  in  all  the  Prince's  descendants,  male 
and  female — a  circumstance  unprecedented  since  the  foundation 
of  the  Republic. 

This  change  which  happened  in  the  Stadtholdership  did  not, 
however,  prevent  the  French  from  making  new  conquests. 
They  had  no  sooner  got  possession  of  Dutch  Flanders,  than 
they  attacked  the  town  of  Maestricht.  The  Duke  of  Cumber- 
land having  advanced  with  the  allied  army  to  cover  the  town,  a 
bloody  battle  took  place  near  Laveld  (July  2,  1747,)  which  was 
gained  by  the  French,  under  the  command  of  Marshal  Saxe. 
The  fortress  of  Bergen-op-Zoom,  which  was  deemed  impregna- 
ble by  its  situation  and  the  marshes  which  surrounded  it,  was 
carried  by  assault  by  Count  Lewendal,  two  months  after  he  had 
opened  his  trenches. 

However  brilliant  the  success  of  the  French  arms  was  on  the 
Continent,  they  failed  in  almost  all  their  maritime  expeditions. 
The  English  took  from  them  Louisburg  and  Cape  Breton  in 
America ;  and  completely  destroyed  the  French  marine,  which 
had  been  much  neglected,  under  the  ministry  of  Cardinal  Fleu- 
ry.     All  the  bellig^erent  powers  at  length  felt  the  necessity  of 


PERIOD  VUI.      A.  D.  1713 — 1789.  81 

peace  ;  and  there  were  two  events  which  tended  to  accelerate 
it.  The  Empress  of  Russia,  conformable  to  the  engagements 
into  which  she  had  entered  with  the  Courts  of  Vienna  and 
London,  by  the  treaties  of  1746  and  1747,  had  despatched 
Prince  Repnin  to  the  Rhine,  at  the  head  of  30,000  men.  Mar- 
shal Saxe,  at  the  same  time,  had  laid  siege  to  Maestricht,  in 
presence  of  the  enemy,  who  were  80,000  strong.  The  taking 
of  that  city  would  have  laid  open  all  Holland  to  the  French,  and 
threatened  the  Republic  with  the  most  disastrous  consequences. 

A  preliminary  treaty  was  then  signed  at  Aix-la-Chapelle, 
which  was  followed  by  a  definitive  peace  (Oct.  18,  1748.)  There 
all  former  treaties  since  that  of  Westphalia  were  renewed  ;  a 
mutual  restitution  was  made  on  both  sides,  of  all  conquests 
made  during  the  war,  both  in  Europe,  and  in  the  East  and  West 
Indies  ;  and  in  consideration  of  the  important  restitutions  which 
France  had  made  on  the  Continent,  they  ceded  to  Don  Philip, 
the  son-in-law  of  Louis  XV.,  and  brother  of  Don  Carlos,  the 
dutchies  of  Parma,  Placentia,  and  Guastalla  ;  to  be  possessed 
by  him  and  his  lawful  heirs  male.  The  treaty  of  preliminaries 
contained  two  conditions  upon  which  the  dutchies  of  Parma  and 
Guastalla  should  revert  to  the  Queen,  and  that  of  Placenlia  to 
the  King  of  Sardinia  ;  viz.  (1.)  Failing  the  male  descendants  of 
Don  Philip.  (2.)  If  Don  Carlos,  King  of  the  Two  Sicilies,  should 
be  called  to  the  throne  of  Spain.  In  this  latter  case^  it  was  pre- 
sumed that  the  kingdom  of  the  Two  Sicilies  should  pass  to  Don 
Philip,  the  younger  brother  of  that  prince ;  but  they  did  not 
seem  to  recollect  that  the  peace  of  Vienna  (1738)  had  secured 
this  latter  kingdom  to  Don  Carlos,  and  all  his  descendants  male 
and  female  ;  and  consequently,  nothing  prevented  that  prince, 
should  the  case  so  happen,  from  transferring  the  Two  Sicilies  to 
one  of  his  own  younger  sons  ;  supposing  even  that  he  were  not  per- 
mitted to  unite  that  kingdom  with  the  Spanish  monarchy.  The 
plenipotentiaries  having  perceived  this  oversight  after  the  con- 
clusion of  the  preliminaries,  took  care  to  rectify  it  in  the  defini- 
tive treaty,  by  thus  wording  the  second  clause  of  the  reversion, 
"  Should  Don  Philip,  or  any  of  his  descendants,  be  either  called 
to  the  throne  of  Spain,  or  to  that  of  the  Two  Sicilies.^^ 

The  Empress  agreed  to  this  change,  but  the  King  of  Sardinia 
was  not  so  complaisant.  In  respect  to  him,  it  was  necessary  to 
make  the  definitive  treaty  entirely  conformable  to  the  prelimi- 
naries. It  was  this  circumstance  which  prevented  the  King  of 
the  Two  Sicilies,  from  acceding  to  the  treaty  of  Aix-la-Chapelle. 
By  that  treaty  the  King  of  Sardinia  was  confirmed  in  those  dif- 
ferent possessions  in  the  Milanois  which  the  treaty  of  Worms 
had  adjudged  him.    These,  however,  did  not  include  that  part  of 


S2  •         CHAPTER  IX. 

Placentia  which  had  just  been  ceded  to  Don  Philip ;  nor  the 
marquisate  of  Finale,  which  the  Genoese  retained.  That  Re- 
public, and  the  Duke  of  Modena,  who  had  always  been  the  ally 
of  France,  were  restored  to  the  same  state  in  which  they  were 
before  the  war.  Silesia  was  guaranteed  to  the  King  of  Prussia 
by  the  whole  of  the  contracting  powers.  As  for  England,  be- 
sides the  guarantee  of  the  British  succession  in  favour  of  the 
House  of  Hanover,  she  obtained  a  renewal  of  the  expulsion  ol 
the  Pretender  from  the  soil  of  France ;  while  this  latter  power, 
victorious  on  the  continent,  consented  to  revive  the  humiliating 
clause  in  the  treaty  of  Utrecht,  which  ordered  the  demolition  of 
the  Port  of  Dunkirk.  The  only  modification  which  was  made 
to  this  clause  was,  that  the  fortifications  of  the  place  on  the 
land  side  should  be  preserved.  Lastly,  by  the  sixteenth  article 
of  the  treaty  of  Aix-la-Chapelle,  the  contract  of  the  Assiento  re- 
specting the  slave  trade  granted  to  England  by  the  treaty  of 
Utrecht,  was  renewed  in  favour  of  the  English  Company  of  the 
Assiento,  for  the  four  years  in  which  that  trade  had  been  inter- 
rupted during  the  war.  "* 

This  peace  produced  no  considerable  change  gn  the  political 
state  of  Europe  ;  but  by  maintaining  the  King  of  Prussia  in  his 
conquest  of  Silesia,  it  raised  a  rival  to  Austria  in  the  very  centre 
of  the  Empire.  The  unity  of  the  Germanic  body  was  thus 
broken,  and  that  body  divided  between  the  two  leading  powers, 
Austria  and  Prussia.  The  system  of  aggrandizement  and  con- 
venience which  Frederic  the  Great  had  put  in  practice  for  de- 
priving Austria  of  Silesia  came  afterwards  into  vogue  ;  and  by 
gradually  undermining  the  system  of  equilibrium,  which  former 
treaties  had  introduced,  it  occasioned  new  revolutions  in  Europe. 

The  dispute  about  the  Austrian  succession,  extended  its  in- 
fluence to  the  North,  where  it  kindled  a  war  between  Russia  and 
Sweden.  The  Empress  Anne,  a  little  before  her  death  (Oct.  17, 
1740,)  had  destined  as  her  successor  on  the  throne  of  Russia,  the 
young  prince  Iwan  or  John,  the  son  of  her  niece  Anne  of  Meck- 
lenburg, by  Prince  Anthony  Ulric  of  Brunswick.  The  Regency 
during  the  minority  of  Iwan,  was  conferred  on  her  favourite 
Biron,  whom  she  had  raised  to  the  first  offices  of  the  state,  and 
created  Duke  of  Courland.  The  mother  of  the  young  Emperor, 
indignant  at  seeing  the  management  of  affairs  in  the  hands  of  a 
favourite,  gained  over  to  her  interests  Field-Marshal  Munich, 
by  whose  assistance  the  Duke  of  Courland  was  arrested  and 
banished  to  Siberia,  whilst  she  herself  was  proclaimed  Grand 
Dutchess  and  Regent  of  the  Empire. 

The  ministry  of  this  princess  were  divided  in  their  opinions, 
on  the  subject  of  the  war  about  the  Austrian  succession.    Some 


iKRioD  VIII.     A.  D.  1713 — 1789.  88 

supported  the  cause  of  Prussia,  with  which  Eussia  had  just  re- 
newed her  treaties  of  alliance ;  while  others  were  inclined  for 
Austria,  the  ancient  ally  of  Russia.  This  latter  party  having 
prevailed,  France,  in  order  to  prevent  Russia  from  assisting 
Maria  Theresa,  thought  proper  to  give  her  some  occupation  m 
the  North.  It  was  by  no  means  difficult  to  raise  Sweden 
against  her  ;  where  the  faction  of  the  Hats^  then  the  ruling 
party,  was  entirely  devoted  to  the  French  interest.  This  fac- 
tion, which  was  opposed  by  that  of  the  Bonnets,  or  Caps,  re- 
newed the  treaty  of  subsidy  with  France,  and  also  concluded  a 
treaty  of  perpetual  alliance  against  Russia  (Dec.  22,  1739.) 
Encouraged  by  the  young  nobles,  they  flattered  themselves  that 
the  time  was  come,  when  Sweden  would  repair  the  losses  which 
she  had  sustained  by  the  foolish  expeditions  of  Charles  XII. 

A  Diet  extraordinary  was  assembled  at  Stockholm  (Aug. 
1741,)  which  declared  war  against  Russia.  They  alleged, 
among  other  motives,  the  exclusion  of  the  Princess  Elizabeth, 
daughter  of  Peter  the  Great,  and  the  Duke  of  Holstein-Gottorp, 
from  the  throne  of  Russia  ;  the  assassination  of  Major  Sinclair, 
who  had  been  murdered,  as  the  Swedes  affirmed,  by  the  emis- 
saries of  Russia,  while  bearing  despatches  from  Constantinople 
lor  the  Sv/edish  Court,  and  when  he  was  passing  through  Silesia 
on  his  way  to  Stockholm.  This  declaration  of  war  had  been 
made,  before  the  Swedes  could  take  those  measures  which  pru- 
dence should  have  dictated.  They  had  neither  an  army  fit  for 
action,  nor  stores  prepared  in  Finland  ;  and  their  General,  Count 
Lewenhaupt,  had  nothing  to  recommend  him  but  his  devotion 
to  the  ruling  party.  Sweden  had  flattered  herself  that  the  Turks 
would  recommence  the  war  with  Russia,  and  that  she  would 
thus  find  resources  in  the  alliance  and  subsidies  of  France.  The 
first  action,  which  took  place  near  Wilmanstrand  (Sept.  3,  1741) 
was  quite  in  favour  of  the  Russians  ;  a  great  number  of  Swedes 
were  there  either  killed  or  made  prisoners,  and  the  town  of  Wil- 
manstrand  was  carried  sword  in  hand. 

Meantime  a  revolution  happened  at  St.  Petersburg,  which 
seemed  to  have  brought  about  a  favourable  change  for  the  Swe- 
dish government.  The  Princess  Elizabeth,  supported  by  the 
Marquis  de  la  Chetardie,  minister  of  France,  and  by  a  company 
of  the  guards  whom  she  had  drawn  over  to  her  interest,  seized 
the  Regent  Anne,  her  husband  the  Prince  of  Brunswick,  and  the 
young  Emperor ;  all  of  whom  she  sent  into  exile,  and  caused 
herself  to  be  proclaimed  Empress.  The  Swedes,  who  haTi  flat- 
tered themselves  with  having  aided  in  placing  that  princess  on 
the  throne,  immediately  entered  into  negotiations  with  her  ;  but 
as  they  carried  their  pretensions  too  high,  the  conference  was 
broken  off  nnd  the  vynr  'continued 


84  CHAPTER  IX. 

Tbe  campaign  of  1742,  proved  also  unfortunate  for  Sweden. 
I'heir  army  in  Finland,  though  equal  in  point  of  strength  to  thai 
of  Eussia,  durst  not  keep  the  field.  They  abandoned  all  their 
best  posts  one  after  another,  and  retired  towards  Helsingfors. 
beyond  the  ri.er  Kymen.  Shut  up  in  this  position,  and  besieg- 
ed by  sea  and  land,  they  were  obliged  to  capitulate.  The  Swe- 
dish troops  returned  home,  the  Finnish  regiments  laid  down 
tneir  arms,  and  the  whole  of  Finland  surrendered  to  the  Russians. 

The  States  of  Sweden  having  assembled  under  these  circum- 
stances, and  bemg  desirous  of  an  accommodation  with  Russia, 
offered  the  throne  of  Sweden  to  Charles  Ulric,  Duke  of  Holstein- 
Gottorp,  and  nephew  of  the  Empress  Elizabeth.  That  prince, 
however,  declined  the  offer  of  the  Diet.  He  had  just  been  de- 
clared Grand  Duke,  and  presumptive  heir  to  the  Russian  Em- 
pire, and  had  embraced  the  Greek  religion.  This  intelligence 
astounded  the  Diet,  who  then  placed  on  the  list  of  candidates  for 
th*^  throne,  the  Prince  Royal  of  Denmark,  the  Duke  of  Deux- 
Ponts,  and  the  Bishop  of  Lubec,  uncle  to  the  new  Grand  Duke 
of  Russia.  A  considerable  party  were  inclined  for  the  Prince  of 
Denmark ;  and  they  were  on  the  point  of  renewing  the  ancient 
union  of  the  three  kingdoms  of  the  North  in  his  favour.  To 
prevent  an  election  so  prejudicial  to  the  interests  of  Prussia,  the 
Empress  abated  from  the  rigour  of  her  first  propositions,  and 
offered  to  restore  to  the  Swedes  a  great  part  of  their  conquests, 
on  condition  of  bestowing  their  throne  on  Prince  Adolphus  Fre- 
deric, Bishop  of  Lubec.  This  condition  having  been  acceded 
to,  Prince  Frederic  was  elected  (July  3,  1743 ;)  the  succession  to 
descend  to  his  male  heirs.  A  definitive  peace  was  then  conclu- 
ded between  Russia  and  Sweden,  at  Abo  in  Finland. 

Sweden,  by  thus  renouncing  her  alliance  with  the  Porte,  rati- 
fied anew  all  that  she  had  surrendered  to  Russia  by  the  peace  of 
Nystadt.  Moreover,  she  ceded  to  that  Crown  the  province  of 
Kymenegard  in  Finland,  with  the  towns  and  fortresses  of  Frie- 
dricsham  and  Wilmanstrand ;  as  also  the  parish  of  Pyttis,  lying 
to  the  east  of  the  Kymen,  and  the  ports,  places,  and  districts, 
situated  at  the  mouth  of  that  river.  The  islands  lying  on  the 
south  and  west  of  the  Kymen  were  likewise  included  in  this 
cession  ;  as  were  also  the  town  and  fortress  of  Nyslott,  with  its 
territory.  All  the  rest  of  Finland  was  restored  to  Sweden,  to- 
gether with  the  other  conquests  which  Russia  had  made  during 
the  war.  The  Swedes  were  permitted  to  purchase  annually  in 
the  Russian  Ports  of  the  Baltic,  and  the  GuJf  of  Finland,  grain 
to  the  value  of  50,000  rubles,  without  paying  any  export  duty. 

Portugal,  about  the  middle  of  the  eighteenth  century,  became 
the  scene  of  various  memorable  events,  which  attracted  general 


Earthquake  at  Lisbon.     Vol.  2,  p.  80. 


Engagement  of  the  Russian  and  Turkish  Fleets  off  Scio,  1770. 
Vol.  2,  p.  104. 


pEHioD  vm.    A.  D.  171^—1789.  9l^ 

attention.  John  V.,  who  had  governed  that  khigdom  from  1706 
till  1750y  had  fallen  into  a  state  of  weakness  and  dotage,  and 
abandoned  the  reins  of  government  to  Don  Gaspard,  his  confes- 
sor, under  who^e  administration  numerous  abuses  had  crept  into 
the  state.  Joseph  I.,  the  son  and  successor  of  John  V.,  on 
ascending  the  throne  (July  31,  1750,)  undertook  to  reform  these 
abuses.  By  the  advice  of  his  minister,  Sebastian  De  Carvalho, 
afterwards  created  Count  D'Oeyras,  and  Marquis  De  Pombal, 
he  turned  his  attention  to  every  branch  of  the  administration. 
He  patronized  the  arts  and  sciences,  encouraged  agriculture, 
nanufactures,  and  commerce  ;  regulated  the  finances  ;  and  used 
every  effort  to  raise  the  army  and  na^'y  of  Portugal  from  that 
state  of  languor  into  which  they  had  fallen.  These  innovations 
could  not  be  accomplished  without  exciting  discontent  in  the 
different  orders  of  the  state.  The  minister  increased  this  by  his 
inflexible  severity,  and  the  despotism  which  he  displayed  in  the 
exercise  of  his  ministerial  functions  ;  as  well  as  by  the  antipathy 
which  he  showed  against  the  nobility  and  the  ministers  of  reli- 
gion. The  Companies  which  he  instituted  for  exclusive  com- 
merce to  the  Indies,  Africa,  and  China,  raised  against  him  the 
whole  body  of  merchants  in  the  kingdom.  He  irritated  the  no- 
bility by  the  contempt  which  he  testified  towards  them,  and  by 
annexing  to  the  Crown  those  immense  domains  in  Africa  and 
America,  which  the  nobles  enjoyed  by  the  munificence  of  former 
kings.  The  most  powerful  and  the  most  dangerous  enemies  of 
this  minister  were  the  Jesuits,  whom  he  had  ventured  to  attack 
openly,  and  had  even  ordered  to  be  expelled  from  Portugal. 
This  event,  which  was  attended  with  remarkable  consequences, 
must  be  described  more  fully. 

During  the  life  of  John  V.,  a  treaty  had  been  signed  between 
the  Courts  of  Madrid  and  Lisbon  (1750,)  in  virtue  of  which  the 
Portuguese  colony  of  St.  Sacrament  and  the  northern  bank  of 
the  river  La  Plata  in  America,  were  ceded  to  Spain,  in  exchange 
for  a  part  of  Paraguay,  lying  on  the  eastern  bank  of  the  Uru- 
guay. This  treaty  was  on  the  point  of  being  carried  into  exe- 
cution ;  the  commissioners  appointed  for  this  purpose  had  com- 
menced their  labours  ;  but  the  inhabitants  of  the  ceded  territories 
opposed  the  exchange,  as  did  several  individuals  in  both  Courts. 
The  Jesuits  were  suspected  of  being  the  authors  and  instigators 
of  that  opposition.  In  the  territories  which  were  to  be  ceded  to 
Portugal,  they  had  instituted  a  republic  of  the  natives,  which 
they  governed  as  absolute  masters ;  and  which  they  were  afraid 
would  be  subverted,  if  the  exchange  in  question  should  take 
place.  They  used  every  means,  therefore,  to  thwart  the  arrange- 
ments of  the  two  courts  ;  and  it  is  alleged  they  even  went  so  far 

VOL   n  8 


86  CHAPTER  IX. 

as  to  excite  a  rebellion  among  the  inhabitants  of  the  countries  to 
be  exchanged.  The  consequence  was,  a  long  and  expensiv*^ 
war  between  the  two  crowns,  which  occasioned  much  bloodshed, 
and  cost  Portugal  alone  nearly  twenty  millions  of  cruzados. 

In  the  midst  of  these  events,  there  occurred  a  terrible  earth- 
quake, which,  in  the  twinkling  of  an  eye,  demolished  the  greater 
part  of  Lisbon,  and  destroyed  between  twenty  and  thirty  thou- 
sand of  its  inhabitants  (Nov.  1,  1755.)  Fire  consumed  what- 
trrei  had  escaped  from  the  earthquake  ;  while  the  overflowing 
of  the  sea,  cold  and  famine,  added  to  the  horrors  of  these  ca- 
lamities, which  extended  even  over  a  great  part  of  the  kingdom. 
The  Jesuits  were  reproached  for  having,  at  the  time  of  this  distres- 
sing event,  announced  new  disasters,  which  were  to  overwhelm 
Portugal,  as  a  punishment  for  the  sins  of  which  the  inhabitants 
had  been  guilty.  These  predictions,  added  to  the  commotions 
which  still  continued  in  Brazil,  served  as  a  pretext  for  depriving 
the  Jesuits  of  their  office  of  Court-confessors,  shutting  them  out 
from  the  palace,  and  even  interdicting  them  from  hearing  con 
fessions  over  the  whole  kingdom. 

The  outrage  which  was  committed  against  the  King's  person 
immediately  after,  furnished  the  minister  with  another  pretext 
against  that  religious  order.  The  King,  when  going  by  night 
to  Belem,  ,(Sept.  3,  175S,)  was  attacked  by  assassins,  who  mis- 
took him  for  another,  and  fired  several  shots  at  him,  by  which 
he  was  severely  wounded.  Several  of  the  first  nobles  in  the 
kingdom  were  accused,  among  others  the  Duke  d'Aveiro,  the 
Marquis  and  Marchioness  de  TaA'-ora,  the  Count  d'Atougia,  &c. 
as  being  the  ringleaders  in  this  plot  against  the  King's  life,  who 
were  sentenced  to  execution  accordingly,  [but  their  innocence 
was  afterwards  fully  established.] 

The  Jesuits  were  also  implicated  in  this  affair,  and  publicly 
declared  accomplices  in  the  King's  assassination.  They  were 
proscribed  as  traitors  and  disturbers  of  the  public  peace  ;  theii 
goods  were  confiscated ;  and  every  individual  belonging  to  the 
order  was  embarked  at  once  at  the  several  ports  of  the  king 
dom,  without  any  regard  to  age  or  infirmities,  and  transported 
to  Civita  Vecchia  within  the  Pope's  dominions.  The  Portu 
guese  minister,  apprehensive  that  this  religious  order,  if  pre- 
served in  the  other  states  of  Europe,  would  find  means,  sooner 
or  later,  to  return  to  Portugal,  used  every  endeavour  to  have 
their  Society  entirely  suppressed.  He  succeeded  in  this  at- 
tempt by  means  of  the  negotiations  which  he  set  on  foot  witl: 
several  of  the  Catholic  courts.  In  France  the  Society  was 
dissolved,  in  virtue  of  the  decrees  issued  by  the  parliament 
(1762.)  Paris  set  the  first  example  of  this.   Louis  XV.  declared. 


PERIOD  vin.     A.  D.  1713 — 1789.  87 

.hat  the  Society  should  no  longer  exist  within  the  kingdom. 
The  Court  of  Madrid,  where  they  had  two  powerful  enemies 
in  the  ministry,  Counts  d'Aranda  and  de  Campomanes,  com- 
manded all  the  Jesuits  to  depart  from  the  territory  and  jurisdic- 
tion of  Spain  ;  and,  at  the  same  time,  declared  their  goods  con- 
fiscated. They  were  likewise  expelled  from  the  kingdom  of 
Naples  ;  and  the  order  was  at  len2"th  entirely  suppressed,  by  a 
brief  of  Pope  Clement  XIV.  (July  21,  1773.)5 

The  peace  of  Aix-la-Chapelle  had  by  no  means  restored  a 
good  understanding  between  France  and  England.  A  jealous 
rivalry  divided  the  two  nations,  Avhich  served  to  nourish  and 
multiply  subjects  of  discord  between  them.  Besides,  the  ac- 
tivity of  the  French  in  repairing  their  marine,  which  had  been 
destroyed  in  the  last  war,  was  viewed  with  jealousy  by  Great 
Britain,  then  aspiring  to  the  absolute  command  of  the  sea,  and 
conscious  that  France  alone  was  able  to  counteract  her  ambi- 
tious projects.  Several  matters  of  dispute,  which  the  peace  of 
Aix-la-Chapelle  had  left  undecided,  still  subsisted  betweeen  the 
two  nations,  relative  to  their  possessions  in  America.  The  prin- 
cipal of  these,  regarded  the  boundaries  of  Nova  Scotia  and  Cana- 
da, and  the  claims  to  the  neutral  islands.  Nova  Scotia  had  been 
ceded  to  England,  by  the  twelfth  article  of  the  treaty  of  Utrecht, 
according  to  its  ancient  limits.  These  limits  the  French  had 
circumscribed  within  the  bounds  of  the  peninsula  which  forms 
that  province  ;  while  the  English  insisted  on  extending  them  to 
the  southern  bank  of  the  river  St.  LaAvrence,  of  which  the  ex- 
clusive navigation  belonged  to  the  French. 

The  limits  of  Canada  were  not  better  defined  than  those  of 
Nova  Scotia.  The  French,  with  the  view  of  opening  a  com- 
munication between  Canada  and  Louisiana,  had  constructed  se- 
veral forts  along  the  river  Ohio,  on  the  confines  of  the  English 
colonies  in  America.  This  was  opposed  by  England,  who  Avas 
afraid  that  these  establishments  would  endanger  the  safety  of 
her  colonies,  especially  that  of  Virginia.  The  neutral  islands, 
namely  theCaribees,  which  comprehended  St.  Lucia,  Domini- 
ca, St.  Vincent,  and  Tobago,  still  remained  in  a  contested  state, 
according  to  the  ninth  article  of  the  treaty  of  Aix-la-Chapelle. 
The  French,  however,  alleged  certain  acts  of  possession,  by 
which  they  claimed  the  property  of  these  islands,  as  well  as  of 
the  Caicos  and  Turkish  islands.  Commissioners  were  appoint- 
ed on  both  sides  to  bring  these  disputes  to  an  amicable  termi- 
nation. A  conference  was  opened  at  Paris,  which  began  about 
the  end  of  September  1750,  and  continued  for  several  years  ; 
but  as  neither  party  was  disposed  to  act  with  sincerity,  these 
conferences  ended  in  nothing.     The  English,  who  saw  that  the 


88  CHAPTER  IX. 

French  only  sought  to  gain  time  for  augmenting  their  marine 
hastened  the  rupture  by  committing  a-cts  of  hostility  in  America. 

The  first  breach  of  the  peace  was  committed  on  the  banks  of 
the  Ohio,  where  the  French,  to  avenge  the  murder  of  one  of  their 
officers,  seized  on  Fort  Necessity,  belonging  to  the  English 
(July  1754.)  The  English,  on  their  side,  captured  two  French 
vessels  off  the  Bank  of  Newfoundland,  which  had  refused  to 
salute  the  English  flag.  They  exen  attacked  all  the  French 
merchantmen  which  they  met,  and  captured  about  three  hun- 
dred of  them.  Thus,  a  long  and  bloody  war  was  waged  for  the 
deserts  and  uncultivated  wilds  of  America,  which  extended  its 
ravages  over  all  parts  of  the  globe,  involving  more  especially 
the  countries  of  Europe. 

England,  according  to  a  well  known  political  stratagem, 
sought  to  occupy  the  French  arms  on  the  Continent ;  in  order 
to  prevent  the  increase  of  her  maritime  strength.  France,  in- 
stead of  avoiding  that  snare,  and  confining  herself  solely  to 
naval  operations,  committed  the  mistake  of  falling  in  with  the 
views  of  the  British  minister.  While  repelling  the  hostilities 
of  England  by  sea,  she  adopted  at  the  same  time  measures  for 
invading  the  Electorate  of  Hanover.  The  Court  of  London, 
wishing  to  guard  against  this  danger,  began  by  forming  a 
closer  alliance  with  Russia  (Sept.  30,  1755  ;)  they  demanded  of 
the  Empress  those  supplies  which  they  thought  they  might 
claim  in  virtue  of  former  treaties  ;  and  on  the  refusal  of  that 
princess,  who  was  afraid  to  disoblige  France,  and  to  find  her- 
self attacked  by  Prussia,  they  applied  to  this  latter  power,  with 
which  they  concluded  a  treaty  at  Westminster  (Jan.  16,  1756;) 
the  chief  object  of  which  was  to  prevent  foreign  troops  from 
entering  into  the  Empire  during  the  war  between  France  and 
England.  To  this  treaty  France  opposed  the  alliance  which 
she  had  concluded  with  Austria  at  Versailles,  by  which  the  two 
powers  guaranteed  their  respective  possessions  in  Europe,  and 
promised  each  other  a  mutual  supply  of  twenty-four  thousand 
men  in  case  of  attack.  The  differences  then  subsisting  between 
France  and  Great  Britain  were  not  reckoned  among  the  Casus 
Federis. 

[The  alliance  of  1756  has  given  rise  to  different  opinions 
among  statesmen  ;  the  greater  part  have  condemned  it.  Its  ob- 
ject was,  on  the  part  of  France,  to  guard  herself  against  all  at- 
tacks on  the  Continent,  that  she  might  direct  her  whole  force 
against  her  maritime  rival ;  but  experience  proved,  that  without 
attaining  this  object,  she  was  henceforth  obliged  to  take  part  in 
all  the  disputes  of  the  Continent,  however  foreign  they  might 
be  to  her  own  policy.     It  was  even  contrary  to  her  interests  tc 


PERIOD  vni.     A.  J).  1713—1789.  SO 

have  Austria  extricated  from  the  embarrassments  which  the  op- 
position of  Prussia  had  occasioned  her.  If  that  project  had  suc- 
ceeded, Austria  would  have  become  the  preponderating  power 
in  Germany,  to  a  degree  which  would  have  compelled  the  French 
to  turn  their  arms  against  her.] 

While  the  French  were  still  hesitating  as  to  the  part  which 
they  ought  to  take  relative  to  the  Electorate  of  Hanover,  the 
King  of  Prussia  invaded  Saxony  (Aug.  1756.)  On  taking  this 
step,  he  published  a  manifesto,  the  object  of  which  was  to  prove 
by  the  despatches  of  the  three  Courts  of  Vienna,  Dresden,  and 
Petersburg,  that  they  had  concerted  a  plan  among  them  for  at- 
tacking him ;  and  that  common  prudence  required  him  to  pre- 
vent it.  He  declared  at  the  same  time,  that  his  entrance  into 
Saxony  had  no  other  aim  than  that  of  opening  a  communication 
with  Bohemia  ;  and  that  he  v/ould  only  retain  that  country  as  a 
depot  until  the  conclusion  of  the  peace.  This  invasion,  however, 
stirred  up  a  powerful  league  against  Prussia  (1757.)  Besides 
France  and  the  Empress,  it  was  joined  by  the  Germanic  body, 
Russia  and  Sweden.  France,  which  had  at  first  restricted  her- 
self to  furnishing  the  Empress  with  the  supplies  stipulated  by 
the  alliance,  agreed,  by  a  subsequent  treaty,  to  despatch  an  army 
of  more  than  100,000  men  into  Germany,  against  the  King  of 
Prussia,  and  his  ally  the  King  of  England;  and,  moreover,  to 
pay  to  that  Princess  an  annual  subsidy  of  twelve  millions  of 
florins. 

In  this  war  the  French  arms  were  attended  at  first  with  the 
most  brilliant  success.  They  conquered  the  island  of  Minorca, 
and  seized  the  Electorate  of  Hesse,  and  the  whole  States  of 
Brunswick  and  Hanover ;  but  fortune  soon  turned  her  back  on 
them,  when  they  experienced  nothing  but  defeats  and  disasters.  ^ 
The  extraordinary  efforts  which  they  were  making  on  the  Con- 
tinent naturally  tended  to  relax  their  maritime  operations,  and 
thus  afTorded  England  the  means  of  invading  their  possessions 
in  other  parts  of  the  world.  In  the  years  1757  and  1761,  Chan- 
dernagore,  Pondicherry,  and  Mahe,  in  the  East  Indies,  fell  into 
the  hands  of  the  English ;  and  in  1758,  they  seized  on  all  the 
French  settlements  on  the  river  Senegal  and  the  coasts  of  Africa. 
The  Islands  of  Cape  Breton  and  St.  John  in  America ;  the  forts 
and  settlements  on  the  Ohio  ;  Quebec  (where  General  Wolfe 
fell.)  and  the  whole  of  Canada,  were  all  conquered  in  like  man- 
ner, between  the  years  1756  and  1760.  Finally,  the  Islands  of 
Guadaloupe,  Mariagalante,  Dominica,  Martinique,  Grenada,  St. 
Vincent,  St.  Lucia,  and  Tobago,  were  also  taken  from  France. 

The  King  of  Prussia,  though  overwhelmed  by  the  number  of 
his  enemies,  and  finding  no  great  assistance  from  his  alliance 

8=^ 


90  CirAPTER  IX. 

with  England,  nevertheless  did  not  lose  courage.  He  distin- 
guished himself  by  the  number  of  victories  which  he  gained 
over  the  powers  leagued  against  him,  during  the  campaigns  of 
the  Seven  Years'  War.'''  This  war  was  already  far  advanced, 
when  the  Duke  de  Choiseul,  who  was  then  at  the  head  of  the 
French  ministry,  observing  the  great  superiority  of  the  English 
by  sea,  conceived  the  plan  of  the  famous  Family  Compact,  which 
he  negotiated  with  the  Court  of  Madrid,  and  which  was  conclu- 
ded at  Paris  (August  15,  1761.)  The  object  of  this  treaty  was 
to  cement  an  alliance  and  a  perpetual  union  among  the  differ- 
ent branches  of  the  House  of  Bourbon,  for  the  purpose  of  coun- 
terbalancing the  maritime  power  of  England. 

The  King  of  Spain  had  come  under  no  engagment  to  join  in 
the  war  which  subsisted  between  France  and  England  ;  but  the 
haughty  manner  in  which  the  Court  of  London  demanded  of 
him  an  account  of  the  principles  of  the  Family  Compact,  gave 
rise  to  a  declaration  of  war  between  these  two  courts.  Spain 
and  France  required  the  King  of  Portugal  to  accede  to  their 
alliance  against  England.  That  prince  in  vain  alleged  the 
treaties  which  connected  him  with  the  English  nation,  and  which 
would  not  permit  him  to  take  part  against  them.  A  declaration, 
published  by  the  two  allied  courts,  set  forth,  that  the  Spanish 
troops  should  enter  Portugal  to  secure  the  ports  of  that  kingdom  , 
and  that  it  should  be  left  at  the  King's  option  to  receive  them  as 
friends  or  as  enemies  ;  and  it  was  this  which  laid  him  under  the 
necessity  of  declaring  himself  in  favour  of  England  (May  18, 
1762.)  An  English  fleet,  with  a  supply  of  troops,  was  then  sent 
to  the  relief  of  Portugal ;  while  a  body  of  French  troops  joined 
the  Spanish  army  which  was  destined  to  act  against  that  king- 
dom. The  city  of  Almeida  was  the  only  conquest  which  the 
Spaniards  made  in  Portugal.  The  English,  on  the  contrary, 
took  from  the  Spaniards  the  Havana,  and  a  great  part  of  the 
Island  of  Cuba  in  America  ;  as  also  Manilla  and  the  Philip 
pines  in  the  Indian  Ocean.  The  war  thus  became  m)re  general, 
and  seemed  about  to  assume  a  new  vigour,  when  an  unforeseen 
event  changed  entirely  the  face  of  affairs,  and  disposed  the  bel- 
ligerents for  peace. 

Elizabeth,  Empress  of  Eussia,  died  about  this  time ;  and 
Peter  III.,  nephew  to  that  princess,  ascended  the  throne.  Peter, 
who  was  a  great  admirer  of  the  King  of  Prussia,  took  an  early 
opportunity  of  making  \  eace  with  that  prince.  A  suspension  of 
arms  was  signed  between  the  two  crowns,  which  was  followed 
by  a  treaty  of  peace  concluded  at  St.  Petersburg  (May  5,  1762.) 
By  that  treaty,  Russia  surrendered  all  the  conquests  which  she 
had  made  in  Prussia  and  Pomerania  d  jring  the  war.     Peter 


PERIOD  vra.     A.  D.  1713— 17S9.  91 

renounced  the  alliances  which  he  had  formerly  contracted 
against  the  King  of  Prussia ;  while  he,  in  his  turn,  refused  to 
form  alliances  or  engagements  contrary  to  the  interests  of  Rus- 
sia, or  to  the  hereditary  possessions  of  Peter  in  Germany.  But 
the  new  Emperor  was  not  content  with  testifying  this  mark  of 
affection  for  the  King  of  Prussia.  He  agreed  to  send  a  body  of 
troops  into  Silesia  to  his  assistance.  A  revolution,  however, 
liappened  in  Russip^,  which  occasioned  new  changes.  Peter  III, 
was  dethroned  (July  9,)  after  a  reign  of  six  months.  The  Em- 
press Catherine  IL,  his  widow,  on  ascending  the  throne,  pre- 
served the  treat\^  of  peace  with  the  King  of  Prussia ;  but  she 
•recalled  her  troops  from  Silesia,  and  declared  that  she  would 
maintain  neutrality  between  the  King  and  the  Empress. 

Sweden,  who  had  experienced  nothing  but  defeats  in  course 
■of  that  war,  followed  the  example  of  Russia.  She  agreed  to  a 
suspension  of  arms  with  the  King  of  Prussia,  and  soon  after  con- 
cluded a  treat}'-  of  peace  with  him  at  Hamburg  (May  22,  1762.) 
These  tv/o  treaties  paved  the  way  for  a  general  peace,  the  pre- 
liminaries of  which  were  signed  at  Fountainbleau,  between 
France,  England,  Spain  and  Portugal.  The  definitive  peace 
was  concluded  at  Paris  (Feb.  10,  1763.)  This  treaty  was  fol- 
lowed by  that  of  Hubertsburg,  which  reconciled  Prussia  with 
the  Empress  and  the  Elector  of  Saxony. 

By  this  latter  treaty,  the  Empress  surrendered  to  the  King  of 
Prussia  the  province   of  Glatz,  as  also  the  fortresses  of  Wesel 
and  Gueldres.     The  Elector  of  Saxony  again  took  possession 
of  those  States  which  the  King  of  Prussia  had  taken  from  him  ; 
and  the  treaties  of  Breslau,  Berlin  and  Dresden,  were  renewed. 
Thus,  after  seven  campaigns,  as  sanguinary  as  they  were  ex- 
pensive, the  peace  of  Hubertsburg  restored  the  affairs  of  Ger- 
many to  the  same  state  in  which  they  had  been  before  the  war. 
France,  by  the  treaty  of  Paris,  ceded  to  England  Canada  and 
the  island  of  Cape  Breton,  with  the  islands  and  coasts  of  the  Gulf 
and  River  of  St.  Lawrence.     The  boundaries  between  the  two 
nations  in  North  America  were  fixed  by  a  line  drawn  along  the 
middle  of  the  Mississippi,  from  its  source  to  its  mouth.     All  on 
the  left  or  eastern  bank  of  that  riv^r  was  given  up  to  England, 
except  the  city  of  New  Orleans,  wnich  was  reserved  to  France ; 
as  was  also  the  liberty  of  the  fisheries  on  a  part  of  the  coasts  of 
Newfoundland,  and  the  Gulf  of  St.  Lawrence.     The  islands  of 
St.  Peter  and  Miquelon  were  given  them  as  a  shelter  for  their 
fishermen,  but  without  permission  to  raise  fortifications.     The 
islands  of  Martinico,  Gaudaloupe,  Mariagalante,  Desirada,  and 
St.   Lucia,  were  surrendered  to  France ;  while  Grenada,  the 
Grenadines,  St.  Vincent,  Dominica,  and  Tobago,  were  ceded  '.c 


^J  CHAPTER  IX. 

Eno^land.  The  latter  power  retained  her  concfuests  on  the  Sen 
egal,  and  restored  to  France  the  island  of  Gorea  on  the  coast  o' 
Africa.  France  was  put  in  possession  of  the  forts  and  factories 
which  belonged  to  her  in  the  East  Indies,  on  the  coasts  of  Coro- 
mandel,  Orissa,  Malabar,  and  Bengal,  under  the  restriction  ol 
keeping  up  no  military  force  in  Bengal. 

In  Europe,  France  restored  all  the  conquests  she  had  made 
in  Germany;  as  also  the  island  of  Minorca.  England  gave  up 
to  her  Belleisle  on  the  coast  of  Brittany ;  while  Dunkirk  was 
kept  in  the  same  condition  as  had  been  determined  by  the  peace 
of  Aix-la-Chapelle.  The  island  of  Cuba,  with  the  Ilavana,  was 
restored  to  the  King  of  Spain,  who,  on  his  part,  ceded  to  Eng- 
land Florida,  with  Fort  Aug-ustine  and  the  Bay  of  Fensacola. 
The  King  of  Portugal  was  restored  to  the  same  state  in  which 
he  had  been  before  the  war.  The  colony  of  St.  Sacrament  in 
America,  which  the  Spaniards  had  conquered,  was  given  back 
to  him.^ 

The  peace  of  Paris,  of  which  we  have  just  now  spoken,  was 
the  era  of  England's  greatest  prosperity.  Her  commerce  and 
navigation  extended  over  all  parts  of  the  globe,  and  were  sup- 
ported by  a  naval  force,  so  much  the  more  imposing,  as  it  wa.* 
no  longer  counterbalanced  by  the  maritime  power  of  France, 
which  had  been  almost  annihilated  in  the  preceding  war.  The 
immense  ten'itories  which  that  peace  had  secured  her,  both  in 
Africa  and  America,  opened  new  channels  for  her  industry , 
and,  what  deserves  especially  to  be  remarked,  is,  that  she  ac- 
quired at  the  same  time  vast  and  important  possessions  in  the 
East  Indies. 

The  Empire  of  the  Great  Mogul  in  India  had  fallen  into  decay 
about  the  beginning  of  the  eighteenth  centur}'-.  The  viceroys 
and  petty  governors  of  the  Empire,  called  Souhahs  and  Nabobs 
had  become  independent,  and  usurped  the  prerogatives  of  royaltr 
in  the  districts  under  their  authority ;  while  the  Mogul  Empe- 
:dr,  reduced  almost  to  the  single  city  of  Delhi,  his  capital,  pre- 
served nothing  but  the  shadow  of  sovereign  power,  by  means  of 
the  investitures  which  he  granted  to  these  ambitious  princes, 
and  the  coinage  that  was  struck  in  his  name.  Whenever  any 
differences  arose  among  these  princes,  they  usually  had  recourse 
to  the  European  nations,  who  had  settlements  in  India,  and  had 
erected  forts  with  the  consent  of  the  Great  Mogul,  where  they 
kept  an  armed  force  for  the  protection  of  their  commerce.  If 
the  French  took  the  part  of  one  nabob,  it  was  sufficient  to  induce 
the  English  to  espouse  the  quarrel  of  his  adversary;  and  while 
the  two  nations  were  mutually  cultivating  peace  in  Europt 
they  were  often  at  the  same  time  making  war  in  India,  by  fur 


PERIOD  VIII.     A.  D.  1713—1789.  93 

nisliing  supplies  to  their  respective  allies.  Success  was  tor  h. 
long  time  equal  on  both  sides ;  and  it  was  not  until  the  war  of 
1755,  and  by  the  victories  and  conquests  of  the  famous  Lord 
dive,  that  England  obtained  a  decid-ed  ascendency  over  the 
French  in  that  quarter  of  the  world. 

Sourajah  Dowlah^the  Sovibah  of  Bengal,  instigated,  as  is  sup- 
posed, by  the  French,  had  taken  possession  of  Calcutta  (1756,) 
the  principal  settlement  of  the  English  on  the  Ganges.  His 
cruel  treatment  of  the  English  garrison,  which  he  had  made 
prisoners  of  war,  excited  the  resentment  of  that  nation.  To 
avenge  this  outrage,  Colonel  Clive,  supported  by  Admiral  Wat- 
son, retook  Calcutta  (Jan.  1757  ;)  and  after  having  dispossessed 
the  French  of  Chandernagore,  their  principal  establishment  on 
the  Ganges,  he  vanquished  the  Soubah  in  several  actions,  de- 
posed him,  and  put  in  his  place  Jaffier  Ali  Khan,  his  general 
and  prime  minister,  who  was  entirely  devoted  to  England. 

With  this  era  commences  the  foundation  of  the  British  Empire 
in  India.  It  happened  a  short  tim.e  after,  that  the  Mogul  Empe- 
ror, Shah  Allum,  being  driven  from  his  capital  by  the  Patans, 
an  Indian  tribe,  solicited  the  protection  of  the  English,  who 
availed  themselves  of  this  occasion,  as  well  as  of  the  death  of 
Jaffier  Ali,  which  happened  at  this  time,  to  get  themselves  vested 
by  treaty  (1765,)  and  by  means  of  an  Imperial  charter,  in  the 
sovereignty  of  all  Bengal.  In  virtue  of  this  title,  which  legiti- 
mated their  power  in  the  eyes  of  the  people,  they  seized  on  the 
public  revenues  of  the  kingdoms  of  Bengal,  Bahar,  and  Orissa ; 
with  the  reservation  of  an  annual  tribute,  which  they  promised 
to  pay  to  the  Mogul  Emperor,  and  certain  pensions  which  they 
assigned  to  the  Soubahs,  whose  phantom  power  they  disposed 
of  at  their  pleasure.  The  dominion  of  the  English  in  India,  was 
increased  still  more  by  subsequent  conquests;  the  most  impor- 
tant of  which  was  the  powerful  state  of  Mysore,  which  they 
bitterly  overthrew,  after  a  series  of  wars  which  they  carried  on 
with  Hyder  Ali,  and  his  successor  Tippoo  Saib.^ 

[The  death  of  Ferdinand  VI.,  King  of  Spain,  v/as  an  event  of 
some  importance.  He  was  succeeded  by  his  brother  Don  Carlos, 
King  of  the  Two  Sicilies,  and  eldest  son  of  Philip  V.  by  his 
second  marriage,  who  assumed  the  title  of  Charles  III.  Under 
this  prince  the  philosophy  of  the  eighteenth  century  penetrated 
into  Spain,  where  it  displayed  an  energy,  and  gave  rise  to  con 
sequences,  which  had  not  yet  attended  it  in  France.  It  occa- 
sioned the  downfall  of  the  Jesuits,  Avhich  was  accompanied  by 
deed^  repugnant  to  justice  and  humanity.  The  ministers  and 
counsellors  of  that  monarch,  the  Counts  Arranda,  Florida  Blanca, 
iind  Campomanes,  introduced  into  the  internal  administration 


94  CILAPTER  IX. 

of  Spain,  especially  its  finances  and  tactics,  an  order  and  regx?- 
larity  which  had  been  long  unknown  in  that  country.  Agricul- 
ture, commerce,  and  industry  were  beginning  to  recover  from 
^heir  langour,  when  the  American  war  again  threw  them  into 
a  state  of  fatal  depression.] 

Before  quitting  Naples  to  take  possession  of  the  throne  of 
Spain,  Don  Carlos,  who,  as  King  of  the  Two  Sicilies,  had  the 
title  of  Charles  VIL,  published  a  fundamental  law,  bearing,  that 
agreeably  to  former  treaties  which  did  not  admit  the  union  of 
the  Italian  States  with  the  Spanish  monarchy,  he  transferred 
the  kingdom  of  the  Two  Sicilies  to  his  third  son  Don  Ferdinand  ; 
as  his  eldest  son,  Don  Philip,  was  incapable  of  reigning,  and  his 
second,  Don  Carlos,  was  destined^or  the  throne  of  Spain.  He 
intrusted  the  administration  to  a  regency,  during  the  nonage  af 
the  young  prince,  whose  majority  was  fixed  at  the  age  of  seven- 
teen. By  this  law  he  regulated  the  order  of  succession  which 
was  to  take  place  in  the  kingdom  of  the  Two  Sicilies,  and  which 
w^as  the  same  as  that  which  Philip  V.  had  established  in  Spain 
at  the  Cortes  of  1713.  After  the  descendants  male  and  female 
of  his  own  body,  Charles  substituted  his  brothers  Don  Philip, 
Duke  of  Parma,  and  Don  Louis ;  adding,  that  the  kingdom  of 
the  Two  Sicilies  should  never  in  any  case  be  united  with  the 
Spanish  monarchy.  This  regulation  of  the  new  King  of  Spain 
accorded  perfectly  with  the  terms  of  the  seventh  article  of  the 
treaty  of  Vienna  (1738,)  which  secured  the  kingdom  of  the  Two 
Sicilies  to  that  prince  and  his  descendants,  male  and  female  ; 
and  failing  these,  to  his  younger  brothers  and  their  descendants, 
of  both  sexes. 

The  King  of  Sardinia  continued,  however,  to  enforce  his  right 
of  reversion  to  that  part  of  Placentia,  which  the  fourth  article  of 
the  treaty  of  Aix-la-Chapelle  had  secured  to  him,  in  case  Don 
Carlos  should  remove  from  the  kingdom  of  the  Two  Sicilies  to 
the  crown  of  Spain.  The  Court  of  France,  wishing  to  retain  that 
possession  for  Don  Philip,  and  to  prevent  the  tranquillity  of  Ital} 
from  being  disturbed  by  the  pretensions  of  the  King  of  Sardinia, 
engaged  to  procure  that  prince  an  equivalent  with  which  he 
should  have  reason  to  be  satisfied.  This  equivalent  was  settled 
(June  10,  1763)  by  a  convention  concluded  at  Paris,  between 
France,  Spain,  and  the  King  of  Sardinia.  The  latter  consented 
to  restrict  his  right  of  reversion  in  the  two  cases  specified  in  the 
seventh  article  of  the  treaty  of  Aix-la-Chapelle  ;  viz.  (1.)  Fail- 
ing the  male  descendants  of  Don  Philip;  (2.)  Should  that  prince, 
or  one  of  his  descendants,  be  called  either  to  the  throne  of  Spain. 
or  to  that  of  the  Two  Sicilies  ;  and  should  one  or  other  of  these 
two  casej  happen  in  the  meantime,  the  crowns  of  France  and 


PFRIOD  VIU.     A.  D.  1713—1789.  9i 

Spain  engag^ed  that  the  King  of  Sardinia  should  enjoy  the  same 
amount  of  annual  revenue,  which  might  accrue  to  him  (after 
aeiucang  the  expenses  of  administration,)  from  that  part  of  Pla- 
rentia  on  the  Nura,  should  he  ever  come  into  actual  possession. 
Foi  this  purpose,  France  undertook,  by  a  special  agreement, 
which  was  signed  at  Paris  the  same  day  with  the  preceding,  to 
pay  the  King  of  Sardinia,  by  twelve  instalments,  the  sum  of 
•eight  millions  two  hundred  livres  ;  on  condition  of  reverting  to 
France,  should  one  or  other  of  these  alternatives  happen. 

The  sudden  aggrandizement  of  Russia,  since  the  time  of  Peter 
the  Great,  had  changed  the  political  system  of  the  North.  That 
power  had  raised  herself  to  the  first  rank.  She  dictated  the  law 
to  Poland  and  Sweden,  her  ancient  rivals ;  disposed  of  the 
throne  of  Poland  on  every  change  of  reign ;  and  at  the  same 
time  decided  the  fate  of  Courland.  That  dutchy,  which  had 
long  been  possessed  by  the  family  of  Kettler  who  held  it  as  a 
fief  of  the  crown  of  Poland,  had  become  vacant  on  the  death  of  the 
Duke  Ferdinand,  the  last  male  descendant  of  that  House.  Ann, 
Empress  of  Russia,  being  then  only  Datchess  of  Courland,  had  a 
favourite,  named  Ernest  John  Biron,  a  man  raised  by  fortune, 
whose  grandfather  had  been  groom  to  James  III.,  Duke  of  Cour- 
land. When  that  princess  mounted  the  throne  of  Russ.ia,  she 
raised  Biron  to  the  rank  of  Count,  and  to  the  office  of  Great 
Chamberlain  and  Prime  Minister.  The  haughty  favourite  as- 
sumed the  name  and  arms  of  the  family  of  Biron,  in  France ; 
and  prevailed  with  the  Empress  to  grant  him  the  dutchy  of 
Courland.  At  the  death  of  the  last  Duke,  he  even  succeeded  in 
getting  himself  elected  by  the  States  of  that  country  (1737;) 
with  the  aid  of  a  body  of  Russian  troops,  which  the  Empress 
had  sent  to  Mittau,  to  support  his  election.  He  was  invested 
in  the  dutchy  by  the  Republic  of  Poland,  to  be  possessed  by  him- 
self and  his  heirs-male  ;  but  he  did  not  long  enjoy  this  new  dig- 
nity. He  was  deprived  of  it  on  the  death  of  the  Empress  (1740;; 
and  banished  to  Siberia  by  the  Grand  Dutchess  Ann,  mother  of 
the  young  Emperor.  This  princess  caused  a  new  election  to 
be  made  by  the  nobility  of  Courland.  The  dutchy  was  then 
conferred  on  Louis  Ernest,  Prince  of  Brunswick,  who  was  to 
marry  Elizabeth,  daughter  of  Peter  the  Great.  But  the  young 
Emperor,  Iwan,  having  been  dethroned  immediately  after,  the 
Prince  of  Brunswick  never  obtained  possession  of  the  dutchy. 
The  Empress  Elizabeth  having  decla>-ed  to  the  Republic  of 
Poland  that  the  Duke  de  Biron  shoula  never  be  liberated  from 
his  exile,  Augustus  III.,  King  of  Poland,  declared  the  dutchy  of 
Courland  vacant.  He  then  pre  /ailed  on  the  States  ct  that  ooun- 
wy  to  elect  his  own  son.  Prince  Charles,  whom  he  solemnly 
iivested  in  the  dutchy  (17«>9.') 


96  CHAPTER   IX. 

A  new  change  happened  at  the  death  of  the  Empress  Ehza- 
beth,  in  1762.  Peter  IIL,  on  his  accession  to  the  throne  ol  Hus- 
s)a,  recalled  the  Duke  de  Biron  from  his  exile.  The  Empress, 
Catherine  11. ,  who  succeeded  her  husband  that  same  year,  weni 
even  fiirther  than  this  ;  she  demanded  the  restoration  of  dc 
Biron  to  the  dutchy  of  Courland,  and  obliged  Prince  Charles  of 
Saxony  to  give  it  up  to  him  (1769.)  The  Duke  de  Biron  then 
resigned  the  dutchy  to  his  son  Peter,  who,  after  a  reign  of  twen-- 
tj'-five  years,  surrendered  it  to  the  Empress  ;  the  States  of 
Courland  and  Semigallia  made  a  formal  submission  to  Russia 
(March  28,  1795.) 

The  dethronement  of  Peter  III.,  which  we  have  just  men 
tioned,  was  an  event  very  favourable  to  Denmark,  as  it  relievect 
that  kingdom  from  a  ruinous  war  with  which  it  was  threatened 
on  the  part  of  the  Emperor.  Peter  III.  was  the  head  of  the 
House  of  Holstein-Gottorp,  whom  Denm-ark  had  deprived  of 
their  possessions  in  Sleswick,  by  taking  advantage  of  the  dis- 
asters that  befell  Sweden,  which  had  protected  that  family 
against  the  Danish  kings.  The  Dukes  of  Holstein-Gottorp  ex- 
claimed against  that  usurpation  ;  to  which  the  Court  of  Denmark 
had  nothing  to  oppose,  except  their  right  of  conquest,  and  the 
guarantee  which  the  Kings  of  France  and  England,  as  media- 
tors in  the  treaty  of  Stockholm,  had  given  to  Denmark  with 
respect  to  Sleswick. 

Peter  III.  w^as  scarcely  seated  on  the  throne  of  Russia,  when 
he  began  to  concert  means  for  recovering  his  ancient  patrimo- 
nial domains,  and  avenging  the  wrongs  which  the  Dukes  of 
Holstein-Gottorp,  his  ancestors,  had  received  at  the  hands  of 
Denmark.  Being  determined  to  make  war  against  that  power, 
he  attached  the  King  of  Prussia  to  his  cause,  and  marched  a 
Ru-sian  army  of  60,000  men  towards  the  frontiers  of  Denmark 
Six  thousand  Prussians  were  to  join  this  army,  which  was  sup- 
ported by  a  Russian  fleet  to  be  stationed  on  the  coasts  of  Po- 
merania.  The  King  of  Denmark  made  every  effort  to  repel  the 
invasion  with  which  he  was  threatened.  He  set  on  foot  an  army 
of  70,000  men,  the  command  of  which  he  intrusted  to  M.  de 
St.  Germain,  a  distinguished  French  officer. 

The  Danish  army  advanced  towards  Mecklenburg,  and  esta- 
blished their  head-quarters  in  the  town  of  that  name,  one 
league  from  Wismar.  The  Danish  fleet,  consisting  of  twenty 
sail  of  the  line  and  el'^^en  frigates,  appeared  at  the  same  time 
off  Rostock.  The  flames  of  war  were  about  to  kindle  in  the 
North,  and  Peter  III.  was  on  the  point  of  joining  his  army  in 
person  at  ]\lecklenburg,  when  he  was  dethroned,  after  a  shon 
reign  of  six  months  (July  9.  1762. "»     The  Empress  Catherme 


Destruction  of  the  Bastile  at  Paris  by  the  People. 
Vol.  2,  p  145. 


Execution  of  Louis  XVI.  of  France.     Vol,  2,  p.  I5l. 


PERIOD  vni.     A.  D.  1713 — 1789.  97 

II.,  who  succeeded  him,  did  not  think  fit  to  espouse  the  quarrel 
of  her  husband.  She  immediately  recalled  the  Russian  army 
from  Mecklenburg;  and  being  desirous  of  establishing  the  tran- 
quillity of  the  North  on  a  solid  basis,  and  confirming  a  good  un- 
derstanding between  the  two  principal  branches  of  the  House 
of  Holstein,  she  agreed,  by  a  treaty  of  alliance  Vv^ith  the  King 
of  Denmark  (1765,)  to  terminate  all  these  differences  by  a 
provisional  arrangement,  which  was  not  to  take  effect  until  the 
majority  of  the  Grand  Duke  Paul,  the  son  of  Peter  III. 

This  accommodation  between  the  two  Courts  was  signed  at 
Copenhagen  (April  22,  1762.)  The  Empress,  in  the  name  of 
her  son,  gave  up  her  claim  to  the  ducal  part  of  Sleswick,  oc- 
cupied by  the  King  of  Denmark.  She  ceded,  moreover,  to 
that  sovereign  a  portion  of  Holstein,  possessed  by  the  family  of 
Gottorp,  in  exchange  for  the  counties  of  Oldenburg  and  Del- 
menhorst.  It  was  agieed,  that  these  counties  should  be  erect- 
ed into  dutchies,  and  that  the  ancient  suffrage  of  Holstein-Got- 
torp,  at  the  Imperial  Diet,  should  be  transferred  to  them.  This 
provisional  treaty  was  ratified  when  the  Grand  Duke  came  of 
age  ;  and  the  tranf^ference  of  the  ceded  territories  took  place  in 
1773.  At  the  same  time  that  prince  declared,  that  he  designed 
the  counties  of  Oldenburg  and  Delmenhorst  to  form  an  esta- 
blishment for  a  youngei  branch  of  his  family,  that  of  Eutin  ; 
to  which  the  contracting  powers  also  secured  the  bishopric  of 
Lubec,  to  be  held  in  perpetual  possession.  The  bishop  of  Lubec, 
the  head  of  the  younger  branch  of  the  Gottorp  family,  was  that 
same  year  put  in  possession  of  the  counties  of  Oldenburg  and 
Delmenhorst ;  and  the  Emperor  Joseph  II.  erected  these  coun- 
ties into  a  dutchy  and  fief  male  of  the  Empire,  under  the  title 
of  the  Dutchy  of  Holstein-Oldenburg. 

Here  it  will  be  necessary  to  advert  to  the  revolutions  that  took 
place  in  the  Island  of  Corsica,  which,  after  a  long  series  of  troubles 
and  distractions,  passed  from  the  dominion  of  Genoa  to  that  of 
France.  The  oppressions  which  the  Corsicans  had  suffered 
under  the  government  of  the  Genoese,  who  treated  them  with 
extreme  rigour,  had  rendered  their  yoke  odious  and  insupporta- 
ble. They  rose  several  times  in  rebellion  against  the  Republi- 
cans ;  but  from  the  want  of  union  among  themselves,  they  failed 
in  the  different  attempts  which  they  made  for  effecting  their 
liberty  and  independence. 

One  of  the  last  insurrections  of  the  Corsicans  was  that  of 
1729.  They  chose  for  their  leader  Andrew  Ceccaldi  of  a  noble 
family  in  the  Island,  and  Luigi  Giafferi,  a  man  of  courage  and 
an  enthusiast  for  lil>erty.  The  Genoese,  after  trying  in  vam  to 
subdue  the  insurgents,  were  obliged  to  have  recourse  to  the  pro* 


fl6  CHAPTER  11. 

tection  of  forei^ers.  They  applied  to  the  Emperor  Charles 
VI.,  who  sent  them  several  detachments  of  troops  under  tne 
command  of  General  \yachtendonk,  and  Prince  Frederic  Louis 
of  Wurtemberg.  The  Corsicans,  too  feeble  to  oppose  an  enemy 
so  superior  in  strength,  were  glad  to  lay  down  their  arms.  But 
the  war  about  the  Polish  Succession  ha\dng  obliged  the  Empe- 
ror to  withdraw  his  troops,  the  Islanders  raised  a  new  insurrec- 
tion. A  general  assembly  was  then  convened,  which  declared 
Corsica  to  be  a  free  and  independent  republic  (1734.)  Giafferi 
was  re-elected  General,  and  had  for  his  colleague  Hyacinthus 
Paoli,  father  to  the  famous  general  of  that  name.  Thas  the  Ge- 
noese, after  lavishing  much  expense  on  auxiliary  troops,  had  the 
mortification  to  find  themselves  still  in  the  same  condition  in 
which  they  were,  before  receiving  the  Imperial  succours.  They 
then  took  into  their  pay  bodies  of  Swiss  and  Grison  troops  ;  and 
even  enlisted  outlaws  and  vagabonds,  and  placed  them  in  their 
ranks  to  oppose  the  Corsicans. 

It  happened,  during  these  transactions,  that  an  adventurer  ap- 
peared in  Corsica,  the  celebrated  Theodore  Baron  TSeuhof.  He 
was  descended  of  a  noble  family  in  the  county  of  ]Mark,  in  West- 
phalia ;  and  having  procured  arms  and  ammunition  at  Tunis, 
he  repaired  to  Corsica  (1736,)  where  he  was  determined  to  try 
his  fortune.  His  engaging  manners,  added  to  the  prospects 
wh.'ch  he  held  out  of  a  powerful  foreign  assistance,  induced  the 
Corsicans  to  confer  on  him  the  royal  dignity.  He  was  proclaim- 
ed King  of  Corsica,  and  immediately  assumed  the  external 
badges  of  royaltj-.  He  appointed  guards  and  officers  of  state, 
coined  money  in  his  own  name,  and  created  an  order  of  knight- 
hood, called  the  Redemptimi.  Taking  advantage  of  the  enthu- 
siasm with  which  he  had  inspired  the  Corsicans,  he  boldly  made 
war  on  the  Genoese,  and  laid  several  of  their  places  under 
blockade.  But  his  money  being  exhausted,  and  the  people  be- 
ginning to  cool  in  their  attachment  towards  him,  he  took  the 
determination  of  applying  for  assistance  to  foreigners.  He  em- 
barked for  Holland,  where  he  found  means  to  engage  a  society 
of  merchants,  by  the  allurements  of  a  lucrative  commerce  with 
Corsica,  to  furnish  him  with  artiller}',  ammunition,  and  other 
supplies,  with  which  he  returned  to  the  Island. 

Under  these  circumstances,  the  Genoese,  threatened  with 
losing  for  ever  their  sovereignty  over  Corsica,  entered  into  an 
association  with  the  Court  of  Versailles.  This  Court,  fearing 
thai.  England  would  take  advantage  of  these  disturbances  to  gel 
possession  of  the  Island,  concerted  measures  with  the  Court  o"" 
Vienna,  for  obliging  the  Corsicans  to  return  to  their  allegiance 
to  the  Genoese.     For  this  purpose,  a  plan  of  pacification  was 


PERIOD  vm,     A.  D.  1713 — 17S9.  99 

4rawn  up  at  Versailles,  and  Count  de  Boissieuxwas  charged  to 
carry  it  into  execution.  This  General  landed  in  tlie  Island 
(1738,)  at  the  head  of  a  body  of  French  auxiliaries  ;  and  his  ar- 
rival determined  King  Theodore  to  abandon  Corsica,  and  seek 
his  safety  in  flight.  He  retired  to  London,  where  he  was  im- 
prisoned for  debt.  After  a  long  captivity  he  was  set  at  liberty, 
and  died  in  a  state  of  misery  (1756.)  Boissieux  harassed  tlie 
Corsicans  exceedingly,  but  he  failed  in  his  efforts  to  reduce  them 
eo  submission.  His  successor,  the  3Jarquis  de  Maillebois,  was 
more  fortunate ;  he  took  his  measures  with  such  precision  and 
vigour,  that  he  obliged  the  Islanders  to  lay  down  their  arms,  and 
receive  the  law  from  the  conqueror.  Their  Generals,  Giafferi 
and  Paoli,  retired  to  Naples. 

The  war  of  the  Austrian  Succession,  having  obliged  the 
French  Court  to  recall  their  troops  from  Corsica,  that  island  be- 
came the  scene  of  new  disturbances.  Gafforio  and  Matra  then 
took  upon  them  the  functions  of  generalship,  and  the  direction 
of  affairs.  They  had  a  colleague  and  coadjutor  in  the  person 
of  Count  Rivarola,  a  native  of  Corsica,  who,  with  the  assistance 
of  some  English  vessels  succeeded  in  expelling  the  Genoese 
from  Bastia  and  San  Fiorenzo.  The  Corsicans  might  have 
pushed  their  advantages  much  farther,  if  they  could  have  sub- 
dued their  own  feuds  and  private  animosities,  and  employed 
themselves  solely  in  promoting  the  public  interest ;  but  their 
internal  divisions  retarded  their  success,  and  allowed  their  ene- 
mies to  recover  the  places  they  had  conquered.  Rivarola  and 
]\iatra  having  resigned  the  command,  the  sole  charge  devolved 
on  Ga  fforio,  who  was  a  man  of  rare  merit  and  of  tried  valour. 
He  was  beginning  to  civilize  his  countrymen,  and  to  give  some 
stability  to  the  government  of  the  island,  when  he  was  assassi- 
nated, as  is  supposed,  by  the  emissaries  of  the  Genoese  (1753.) 
His  death  pluno-ed  Corsica  once  more  into  the  state  of  disorder 
and  anarchy,  from  which  he  had  laboured  to  deliver  it. 

At  length  appeared  the  celebrated  Pascal  Paoli,  whom  his 
aged  father  had  brought  from  Naples  to  Corsica.  Being  elected 
General-in-chief  by  his  countrymen  (1755,)  he  inspired  then 
with  fresh  courage  ;  and  \vhile  he  carried  on  the  war  with  sue 
cess  against  the  Genoese,  he  made  efforts  to  reform  abuses  in  the 
State,  and  to  encourage  agriculture,  letters  and  arts.  Nothing 
was  wanting  to  accomplish  this  object,  and  to  confirm  the  liberty 
and  independence  of  his  country,  but  the  expulsion  of  the  Geno- 
ese from  the  maritime  towns  of  Bastia,  San  Fiorenzo,  Calvi,  Ai- 
gagliola  and  Ajaccio ;  the  only  places  which  still  remained  in 
their  power.  In  this  he  would  probably  have  succeeded,  had  he 
not  met  with  new  interruptions  from  France,  who  had  underta- 


100  CHAPTER  IX. 

ken,  by  the  several  treaties  which  she  had  concluded  with  ih© 
Genoese  in  the  years  1752,  1755, 1756  and  1764,  to  defend  their 
ports  and  fortifications  in  that  island. 

The  original  intention  of  the  French,  in  taking  possession  of 
these  places,  was  not  to  carry  on  hostilities  with  Paoli  and  the 
native-s,  but  simply  to  retain  them  for  a  limited  time,  in  discharge 
of  a  debt  which  the  French  goverament  had  contracted  with  the 
Eef  jblic  of  Genoa.  The  Genoese  had  flattered  themselves, 
that  if  exonerated  from  the  duty  of  guarding  the  fortified  places, 
they  would  be  able,  with  their  own  forces,  to  reconquer  all  tii,, 
rest  of  the  island ;  but  it  was  not  long  before  they  found  them- 
selves deceived  in  their  expectations.  The  Corsicans  drove  the 
Genoese  from  the  island  of  Capraja  (1767.)  They  even  took 
possession  of  Ajaccio,  and  some  other  parts  v/hich  the  French 
had  thought  fit  to  abandon.  At  the  same  time  the  shipping  of 
the  Corsicans  made  incessant  incursions  on  the  Genoese,  and 
annoyed  their  commerce. 

The  Senate  of  Genoa,  convinced  at  last  that  it  was  impossible 
for  them  to  subdue  the  island,  and  seeing  the  time  approach 
when  the  French  troops  were  to  take  their  departure,  took  the 
resolution  of  surrendering  their  rights  over  Corsica  to  the  crown 
of  France,  by  a  treaty  which  was  signed  at  Versailles  (May  15, 
1768.)  The  King  promised  to  restore  the  island  of  Capraja  ta 
to  the  Republic.  He  guaranteed  to  them  all  their  possessions 
on  terra  fir  ma ;  and  engaged  to  pay  them  annually  for  ten 
years,  the  sum  of  200,000  livres.  The  Genoese  reserved  to 
themselves  the  right  of  reclaiming  the  sovereignty  of  Corsica^ 
on  reimbursing  the  King  for  the  expenses  of  the  expediiion  he 
was  aboui  lo  undertake,  as  v/ell  as  for  the  maintenance  of  his 
troops.  This  treaty  occasioned  strong  remonstrances  on  the  part 
of  the  Corsicans,  who  prepared  themselves  for  a  vigorous  de- 
fence. The  first  campaign  turned  to  their  advantage.  It  cost 
France  several  thousand  men,  and  about  thirty  millions  of  livres. 
The  Duke  de  Choiseul,  far  from  being  discouraged  by  these  dis- 
asters, transported  a  strong  force  into  the  island.  He  put  the 
Count  de  Vaux  in  the  place  of  the  Marquis  de  Chauvelin,  who. 
by  the  skilful  dispositions  which  he  made,  found  himself  master 
of  all  Corsica,  in  less  than  two  months.  The  Islanders  not  hav- 
ing received  from  England  the  supplies  which  they  had  request- 
ed, the  prospect  of  which  had  kept  up  their  courage,  considered 
it  rash  and  hopeless  to  make  h)nger  resistance.  The  different 
provinces,  in  their  turn,  gave  in  their  submission;  and  the  prin- 
cipal leaders  of  the  Corsicans  dispersed  themselves  among  the 
neighbouring  States.     Pascal  Paoli  took  refuge  in  England. 

The  throne  of  Poland  having  become  vacant  by  the  death  of 


PERiCDvni,     A.  D.  1713— 1789.  101 

Augustus  III.  (Oct.  5,  1763,)  the  Empress  Catherine  II.  des- 
tined that  crown  for  Stanislaus  Poniatowski,  a  Polish  nobleman, 
who  had  gained  her  favour  when  he  resided  at  St.  Petersburgh 
as  plenipotentiary  of  Poland.    That  princess  having  gained  over 
the  Court  of  Berlin  to  her  interests,  sent  several  detachments  of 
troops  into  Poland  ;  and  in  this  manner  succeeded  in  carrying 
the  election  of  her  favourite,  w^ho  was  proclaimed  King  at  the 
Diet  of  Warsaw  (Sept.  7,  1764.)     It  was  at  this  diet  of  election 
that  the   Empress   formally  interceded   with   the   Republic   in 
favour  of  the  Dissiderits  (or  dissenters)  of  Poland  and  Lithuania, 
with  the  view  of  having  them  reinstated  in  those  civil  and  ec- 
clesiastical rights,  of  which  they  had  been  deprived  by  the  in- 
tolerance of  the  Catholics.     The  name  of  Dissidents  was  then 
given  in  Poland  to  the  Greek  non-conformists  and  to  the  Pro- 
testants, both  Lutherans  and  Calvinists.     That  kingdom,  as  well 
as   Lithuania,  had  contained  from  the  earliest  ages  a  vast  num- 
ber of  Greeks,  who  persisted  in  their  schism,  in  spite  of  the 
efforts  W'hich  were  incessantly  made  by  the   Polish  clergy  for 
bringing   them  back  to  the  pale  of  the  Romish   church.     The 
Protestant  doctrines  had  been  introduced  into  Poland,  and  had 
made   considerable  progress  in  course  of  the  seventeenth  cen- 
tury ;  more  especially  under  the  reign  of  Sigismund  Augustus, 
The  nobles  who  were  attached  to  that  form  of  worship,  had  ob- 
trined,  at  the  Diet  of  Wilna  (1563,)  the  right  of  enjoying,  along 
w^ith  the  Greeks,  all  the  prerogatives  of  their  rank,  and  of  being 
admitted  without  distinction,  both  to  the  assemblies  of  the  Diet, 
and  the  offices  and  dignities  of  the  Republic.     Moreover,  their 
religious  and  political  liberties  had  been  guaranteed  in  the  most 
solemai  manner,  not  only  by  treaties  of  alliance,  and  the  Pacta 
Conventa  of  the  kings,  but  also  by  the  laws  and  constitution  of 
their  kingdom.     The  Catholics  having  afterwards  become  the 
stronger  party,  their  zeal,  animated  by  their  clergy  and  the  Jesuits, 
led  them  to  persecute   those  whom  they  regarded  as  heretics. 
Thev  had  in  various  ways  circumscribed  their  religious  liberties, 
especially  at  the  Diet  of  1717 ;  and  in  those  of  1733  and  1736, 
thev  went  so  far  as  to  exclude  them  from  the  diets  and  tribunals, 
and  in  general  from  all  places  of  trust ;  only  preserving  the  peace 
with  them  according  to  the  ancient  laws  of  the  Republic. 

The  Dissidents  availed  themselves  of  the  influence  w^hich 
ihe  Empress  of  Rus.sia  had  secured  in  the  affairs  of  Poland,  to 
obtain  by  her  means  the  redress  of  their  grievances.  That  prin- 
cess interposed  more  especially  in  favour  of  the  Greeks,  accord- 
in  o-  to  the  ninth  article  of  the  peace  of  Moscow  between  Russia 
and  Poland  (1686;)  while  the  Courts  of  Berlin,  Stockholm 
London,  and  Copenhagen,  as  guarantees  of  the  peace  of  Oliva 

9* 


,02  CHAPTER  IX. 

urged  the  second  article  of  that  treaty  in  sirpport  of  the  Fro- 
tesiant  dissenters.  Far  from  yielding  to  an  intercession  so 
powerful,  the  Diet  of  Warsavv,  instigated  by  the  clergy  and  the 
Court  of  Rome,  in  the  year  1766  confirmied  all  the  former  law^^ 
against  the  Protestants  which  the  foreign  courts  had  desired  to 
be  altered  and  amended.  They  merely  introduced  some  few 
modifications  in  the  law  of  1717,  relative  to  the  exercise  of  their 
vvorship. 

This  palliative  did  not  satisfy  the  Court  of  St.  Petersburg, 
which  persisted  in  demanding  an  entire  equality  of  rights  iv. 
favour  of  those  under  its  protection.  The  Dissidents  had  the 
courage  to  resnst,  and  entered  into  a  confederacy  at  the  assem- 
blies which  were  held  at  Sluckz  (1767)  and  Thorn.  Such  ot 
the  Catholic  nobility  as  were  discontented  with  the  government^ 
allied  themselves  v/ith  the  Dissidents,  and  formed  several  dis- 
tinct confederacies,  which  afterwords  combined  into  a  general 
confederation  under  Marshal  Prince  Radzivil.  An  extraordi- 
nary Diet  was  then  assembled  at  Warsaw.  Their  deliberations, 
which  began  October  5,  1767,  were  very  tumultuous.  Without 
being  intimidated  by  the  presence  af  a  Russian  array,  the 
Bishop  of  Cracow  and  his  adherents  gave  way  to  the  full  torrent 
of  their  zeal,  in  the  discourses  which  they  pronounced  before 
the  Diet.  The  Empress  caused  them  to  be  arrested  and  con- 
ducted into  the  interior  of  Russia,  whence  they  were  not  per- 
mitted to  return  till  after  an  exile  of  several  years.  They  agreed 
at  length,  at  that  Diet,  to  ap]x>int  a  committee,  composed  of  the 
different  orders  of  the  Republic,  to  regulate  all  matters  regard- 
ing the  Dissidents,  in  concert  with  the  ministers  of  the  protect- 
ing courts.  A  separate  act  was  dra\\Ti  up  (February  24,  1768) 
in  the  form  of  a  convention  between  Russia  and  Poland, 

By  that  act,  the  Dissidents  were  reinstated  in  all  their  former 
rights.  The  regulations  which  had  been  passed  to  their  pre- 
judice in  the  years  1717,  1733,  1736,  and  1766,  were  annulled  ; 
and  a  superior  court,  composed  equally  of  both  parties,  was 
granted  to  them,  for  terminating  all  disputes  which  might  arise 
between  persons  of  different  religions.  This  act  was  confirmed 
by  the  treaty  of  peace  and  alliance  concluded  at  Warsaw  be- 
tween Russia  and  Poland  (Feb.  24,  1768,)  by  which  these  two 
powers  guaranteed  to  each  other  the  whole  of  their  possessions 
in  Europe.  The  Empress  of  Russia  guaranteed,  more  especially, 
the  liberty,  constitution,  and  indivisibility  of  the  Polish  Republic, 

The  act  we  have  just  now  mentioned,  as  well  as  another 
which  modified  what  were  called  the  cardinal  or  fundamental 
aws  of  the  Republic,  having  displeased  a  great  majority  of  the 
Poles,  they  used  ever}'  effort  to  have  these  acts  recalled.     The 


PERIOD  vui.     A.  D.  1713—1789  103 

Diet  of  1768  was  no  sooner  terminated,  than  they  formed  them- 
selves into  a  confederacy  at  Bar  in  Podolia,  for  the  defence  of 
their  religion  and  liberties.  By  degrees,  these  extended  to 
several  Palatinates,  and  were  at  length  combined  into  a  general 
confederation,  under  the  Marshal  Count  De  Pac.  The  standards 
of  these  confederates  bore  representations  of  the  Virgin  Mary 
and  the  Infant  Jesus.  Like  the  Crusaders  of  the  middle  ages, 
they  wore  embroidered  crosses  on  their  garments,  with  the  motto 
Conquer  or  Die.  The  Russians  despatched  troops  to  disperse 
the  confederates  as  fast  as  they  combined  :  but  at  length,  with 
the  assistance  of  France,  and  M.  De  Vergennes,  the  French 
Ambassador  at  the  Porte,  they  succeeded  in  stirring  up  the 
Turks  against  the  Russians.  The  war  between  these  two  Em- 
pires broke  out  towards  the  end  of  1768,  which  proved  disas- 
trous for  the  Turks,  and  suppressed  also  the  confederates  in 
Poland.  The  manifesto  of  the  Grand  Siguier  against  Russia 
was  published  October  30th,  and  his  declaration  of  war  Decem- 
ber 4th,  1768. 

The  Empress  despatched  several  armies  against  the  Turks, 
and  attacked  them  at  once  from  the  banks  of  the  Dniester  to 
Mount  Caucasus.  Prince  Alexander  Galitzin,  who  commanded 
the  principal  army,  was  to  cover  Poland,  and  penetrate  into 
Moldavia.  He  passed  the  Dniester  different  times,  but  was  al- 
ways repulsed  by  the  Turks,  who  were  not  more  fortunate  in 
their  attempts  to  force  the  passage  of  that  river.  On  their  last 
attempt  (September  1769,)  twelve  thousand  men  had  succeeded 
\x\  crossing  it,  when  there  happened  a  sudden  flood  which  broke 
down  the  bridge,  and  cut  off  the  retreat  of  the  Turks.  This  body 
was  cut  to  pieces  by  the  Russians,  when  a  panic  seized  the  Ot- 
toman army,  who  abandoned  their  camp  and  the  fortress  of 
Choczim.  The  Russians  took  possession  of  both  without  cost- 
ing them  a  single  drop  of  blood,  and  soon  after  penetrated  into 
the  interior  of  Moldavia  and  Wallachia. 

The  campaign  of  1770  was  most  splendid  for  the  Russians. 
General  Romanzow,  who  succeeded  Prince  Galitzin  in  the  com- 
mand of  the  army  of  Moldavia,  gained  two  brilliant  victories 
over  the  Turks  near  the  Pruth  (July  18,)  and  the  Kukuli 
(August  1,)  which  made  him  master  of  the  Danube,  and  the 
towns  of  Ismael,  Kilia,  and  Akerman,  situated  in  Bessarabia, 
near  the  mouth  of  that  river.  Another  Russian  army,  under 
the  command  of  General  Count  Panin,  attacked  the  fortress  of 
Bender,  defended  by  a  strong  Turkish  garrison.  It  was  carried 
by  assault  (Sept.  26,)  and  the  greater  part  of  the  garrison  put  to 
the  sword. 

The  Empress  did  not  confine  herself  to  repulsing  the  Turks 


104  CHAPTER  IX. 

on  the  banks  of  the  Dniester  and  the  Danube,  and  harassing 
their  commerce  in  the  Black  Sea.  She  formed  the  bold  pro- 
ject of  attacking  them  at  the  same  time  in  the  islands  of  the  Ar- 
chipelago, and  on  the  coasts  of  Greece  and  the  Morea.  A  Rus- 
sian fleet,  under  the  command  of  Alexis  Orloff  and  Admiral 
Spiritoff',  sailed  from  the  Baltic,  and  passed  the  Northern  Seas 
and  the  Straits  of  Gibraltar,  on  their  way  to  the  Archipelago. 
Being  joined  by  the  squadron  of  Rear-Admiral  Elphinstone,  they 
fought  an  obstinate  battle  with  the  fleet  of  the  Capitan  Pacha 
(JuTy  5,  1770,)  between  Scio  and  Anatolia.  The  ships  of  the 
two  commanders,  Spiritofl"  and  the  Capitan  Pacha,  having  mec 
in  the  engagement,  one  of  them  caught  fire,  when  both  were 
blown  into  the  air.  Darkness  separated  the  combatants  ;  but  the 
Turks  having  imprudently  retired  to  the  narrow  bay  of  Chisme, 
the  Russians  pursued  them,  and  burnt  their  whole  fleet  during 
the  night.  This  disaster  threw  the  city  of  Constantinople  into 
great  consternation  ;  and  the  bad  state  of  defence  in  which  the 
Dardanelles  were,  gave  them  reason  to  fear,  that  if  the  Rus- 
sians had  known  to  take  advantage  of  this  panic,  it  would  have 
been  easy  for  them  to  have  carried  the  Turkish  capital.  Rear- 
Admiral  Elphinstone,  who  commanded  one  of  the  Russian  squad- 
rons, had  suggested  that  advice  ;  but  the  Russian  Admirals 
did  not  think  proper  to  follow  it. 

The  war  on  the  Danube  was  continued  next  year,  though 
feebly  ;  but  the  second  Russian  army,  under  the  command  of 
Prince  Dolgoruki,  succeeded  in  forcing  the  lines  at  Perekop,  de- 
fended by  an  army  of  60,000  Turks  and  Tartars,  commanded 
by  the  Khan  of  the  Crimea  in  person.  Dolgoruki,  after  hav- 
ing surmounted  the  formidable  barrier,  made  himself  master  of 
the  Crimea,  as  also  of  the  Island  of  Taman  ;  and  received  from 
the  Empress,  as  the  reward  of  his  exploits,  the  surname  of 
Krimski.  An  act  was  signed  by  certain  pretended  deputies 
from  the  Tartars,  by  which  that  nation  renounced  the  dominion 
of  the  Ottomans,  and  put  themselves  under  the  protection  of 
Russia  (1772.) 

These  conquests,  however  splendid  they  might  be,  could  not 
fail  to  exhaust  Russia.  Obliged  frequently  to  recruit  her  ar- 
mies, which  were  constantly  thinned  by  battles,  fatigues,  and 
diseases,  she  soon  saw  the  necessity  of  making  peace.  The 
plague,  that  terrible  ally  of  the  Ottomans,  passed  from  the  army 
into  the  interior  of  the  Empire,  and  penetrated  as  far  as  Mos- 
cow, where  it  cut  ofl'  nearly  100,000  men  in  the  course  oi  a 
single  year  (1771.)  What  added  still  more  to  the  embarrass- 
ments of  Catherine  II.  was,  that  the  Court  of  Vienna,  which, 
in  coniunction  with  that  of  Berlin,  had  undertaken  to  mediate 


PERIOD  VIII.     A.  D.  1713— 17S9.  105 

between  Russia  and  the  Porte,  rejected  Avith  disdain  the  condi- 
tions of  peace  proposed  by  the  Empress.  Moreover,  they 
strongly  opposed  the  independence  of  Moldavia  and  Wallachia, 
as  well  as  of  the  Tartars  ;  and  would  not  even  permit  that  the 
Eussians  should  transfer  the  seat  of  war  to  the  right  b?  niv  of 
the  Danube. 

The  Court  of  Vienna  went  even  farther :  it  threatened  to 
make  common  cause  with  the  Turks,  to  compel  the  Empress  to 
restore  all  her  conquests,  and  to  place  matters  between  the  Rus- 
sians and  the  Turks  on  the  footing  of  the  treaty  of  Belgrade. 
An  agreement  to  this  effect  was  negotiated  with  the  Porte,  and 
signed  at  Constantinople  ( Kily  6,  1771.)  This  convention, 
however,  was  not  ratified,  the  Court  of  Vienna  having  changed 
its  mind  on  account  of  the  famous  dismemberment  of  Poland, 
concerted  between  it  and  the  Courts  of  Berlin  and  St.  Peters- 
burg. The  Empress  then  consented  to  restore  to  the  Turks 
ihe  provinces  of  Moldavia  and  AVallachia,  on  the  conclusion  of 
the  peace  ;  and  the  Court  of  Vienna  again  engaged  to  exert  its 
friendly  interference  in  negotiating  peace  between  Russia  and 
the  Porte. 

In  consequence  of  these  events,  the  year  1772  was  passed 
entirely  in  negotiations.  A  suspension  of  arms  was  agreed  to 
between  the  two  belligerent  povv'ers.  A  Congress  was  opened  at 
Foczani  in  Moldavia,  under  the  mediation  of  the  Courts  of  Ber- 
lin and  St.  Petersburg.  This  Congress  was  followed  by  another, 
which  was  held  at  Bucharest  in  Wallachia.  Both  of  these 
meetings  proved  ineffectual,  the  Turks  having  considered  the 
conditions  proposed  by  Russia  as  inadmissible  ;  and  what  dis- 
pleased them  still  more  was,  the  article  relative  to  the  indepen- 
dence of  the  Tartars  in  the  Crimea.  This  they  rejected  as  con- 
trary to  the  principles  of  their  religion,  and  as  tending  to  esta- 
blish a  rivalry  between  the  two  Caliphs.  They  succeeded, 
however,  in  settling  the  nature  of  the  religious  dependence 
under  which  the  Khans  of  the  Crimea  were  to  remain  with  re- 
gard to  the  Porte ;  but  they  could  not  ])0ssibly  agree  as  to  the 
surrender  of  the  ports  of  Jenikaleh  and  Kerch  ;  nor  as  to  the 
unrestrained  liberty  of  navigation  in  the  Turkish  seas,  which 
the  Russians  demanded.  After  these  conferences  had  been  re- 
peatedly broken  off,  hostilities  commenced  anew  (1773.)  The 
Russians  twice  attempted  to  establish  themselves  on  the  right 
bank  of  the  Danube,  but  without  being  able  to  accomplish  it ; 
ihey  even  lost  a  great  number  of  men  in  the  different  actions 
which  they  fought  with  the  Turks. 

The    last  campaign,   that  of  1774,  was  at  length  decisive. 
Abdul  Hammed,  w^ho  had  just  succeeded  his  l^other  Mustapha 


106  CHAPTER  U.. 

III.  on  tho  throne  of  Constantinople,  being  eager  to  raise  the 
glory  of  the  Ottoman  arms,  made  extraordinary  preparations 
for  this  campaign.  His  troops,  reckoned  about  300,000  men, 
greatly  surpassed  the  Russians  in  point  of  number ;  but  they 
were  not  equal  in  point  of  discipline  and  military  skill.  About 
the  end  of  June,  Marshal  Romanzow  passed  the  Danube, 
without  meeting  any  obstacle  from  the  Ottoman  army.  That 
General  took  advantage  of  a  mistake  which  the  Grand  Vizier 
had  committed,  in  pitching  his  camp  near  Schumia  at  too  great 
a  distance  from  his  detachments,  and  cut  otf  his  communication 
with  these  troops,  and  even  with  his  military  stores.  The  de- 
feat of  28,000  Turks,  who  were  bringing  a  convoy  of  four  or 
five  thousand  wagons  to  the  army,  by  General  Kamenski, 
struck  terror  into  the  camp  of  the  Grand  Vizier,  who,  seeing  his 
army  on  the  point  of  disbanding,  agreed  to  treat  with  Marshal 
Romanzow  on  such  terms  as  that  general  thought  fit  to  prescribe. 

Peace  was  signed  in  the  Russian  camp  at  Kainargi,  four  leagues 
from  Silistria.  By  that  treaty,  the  Tartars  of  the  Crimea,  Boud- 
ziac,  and  Cuban,  were  declared  entirely  independent  of  the  Porte, 
to  be  governed  henceforth  by  their  own  sovereign.  Russia  ob- 
tained for  her  merchant  vessels  free  and  unrestrained  naviga- 
tion in  all  the  Turkish  seas.  She  restored  to  the  Turks  Bes- 
*^rabia,  Moldavia,  and  Wallachia  ;  as  well  as  the  islands  in  the 
Archipelago  which  were  still  in  her  possession.  But  she  re- 
served the  city  and  territory  of  Azoflf",  the  two  Kabartas,  the  for- 
tresses of  Jenikaleh  and  Kerch  in  the  Crimea,  and  the  Castle  of 
Kinburn,  at  the  mouth  of  the  Dnieper,  opposite  Oczakoff,  with 
the  neck  of  land  between  the  Bog  and  the  Dnieper,  on  which 
the  Empress  afterwards  built  a  new  city,  called  Cherson,  to  serve 
as  an  entrepQt  for  her  commerce  with  the  Levant.  The  foun- 
dation of  this  city  was  laid  by  General  Hannibal  (Oct.  19, 
1778,)  on  the  western  bank  of  the  Dnieper,  fifteen  versts  from 
the  confluence  of  the  Ingulelz  with  that  river. 

The  House  of  Austria  also  reaped  advantages  from  that  war, 
by  the  occupation  of  Bukowina,  which  she  obtained  from  Rus- 
sia, who  had  conquered  it  from  the  Turks.  This  part  of  Mol- 
davia, comprehending  the  districts  of  Suczawa  and  Czernowitz, 
was  claimed  by  the  Court  of  Vienna  as  one  of  its  ancient  ter- 
ritories in  Transylvania,  which  has  been  usurped  by  the  princes 
of  Moldavia.  The  Porte,  who  was  indebted  to  Austria  for 
the  restitution  of  this  latter  province,  had  no  alternative  but  to 
abandon  the  districts  claimed  by  Austria.  Prince  Ghikas  of 
Moldavia,  having  opposed  the  cession  of  these  provinces,  was 
put  to  death  by  order  of  the  Porte  ;  and  Bukowina  was  confirm- 
ed  to   Austria    by  subsequent  conventions  (1776,  and  1777,) 


PERIOD  vm.     A.  D.  1713—1789.  107 

which  at  the  same  time  regulated  the  limits  between  the  two 
States.  The  peace  of  Kainargi,  though  glorious  for  Russia, 
proved  most  calamitous  for  the  Ottoman  Porte.  By  establishing 
the  independence  of  the  Tartars,  it  lost  the  Turks  one  ot 
their  principal  bulwarks  against  Russia ;  and  they  were  indig- 
nant at  seeing  the  Russians  established  on  the  Black  Sea,  and 
permitted  unrestrained  navigation  in  all  the  Turkish  seas. 
Henceforth  they  had  reason  to  tremble  for  the  safety  of  their 
capital,  which  might  be  assailed  with  impunity,  and  its  supplies 
intercepted,  on  the  least  disturbance  that  might  arise  between  the 
two  Empires. 

The  many  disasters  which  the  Turks  had  experienced  in  the 
war  we  have  now  mentioned,  had  a  direct  influence  on  the  fate 
of  Poland,  which  ended  in  the  dismemberment  of  that  kingdom. 
This  event,  which  had  been  predicted  by  John  Casimir  in  the 
seventeenth  century,  was  brought  about  by  the  mediation  of  the 
Courts  of  Berlin  and  Vienna  for  the  restoration  of  peace  between 
Russia  and  Turkey.  The  conditions  of  that  treaty,  which  were 
dictated  by  the  Empress  Catherine  II.,  having  displeased  the 
Court  of  Vienna,  which  had  moreover  displayed  hostile  inten- 
tions against  Russia,  by  despatching  troops  into  Hungary,  and 
taking  possession  of  a  part  of  Poland,  '\vhich  Austria  claimed  as 
anciently  belonging  to  Hungary,  the  Empress  took  this  occasion 
of  observing  to  Prince  Henry  of  Prussia,  who  then  sojourned  at 
her  Court,  that  if  Austria  seemed  inclined  to  dismember  Poland, 
the  other  neighbouring  powers  were  entitled  to  do  the  same. 
This  overture  was  communicated  by  Prince  Henry  to  his  brother 
the  King  of  Prussia,  who  resolved  to  act  on  this  new  idea.  He 
foresaw  it  would  be  a  proper  means  for  indemnifying  Russia, 
contenting  Austria,  and  augmenting  his  own  territories,  by 
establishing  a  communication  between  the  kingdom  of  Prussia, 
and  his  dutchy  of  Brandenburg.  These  considerations  induced 
him  to  set  on  foot  a  negotiation  with  the  courts  of  Vienna  and 
St.  Petersburg.  He  gave  the  former  to  understand,  that  if  war 
should  break  out  between  Austria  and  Russia,  he  could  not  but 
take  part  in  it  as  the  ally  of  the  latter  power  ;  while  he  repre- 
sented to  the  Empress  of  Russia,  that  if  she  would  consent  to 
restore  Moldavia  and  Wallachia  to  the  Turks,  and  indemnify  her- 
self by  a  part  of  Poland,  she  would  avoid  a  new  war,  and  facili- 
tate an  accommodation  with  the  Porte.  In  this  manner  did  he 
succeed,  after  a  long  and  difficult  negotiation,  in  recommending 
to  the  two  Imperial  courts,  a  project  which  was  to  give  Europe 
the  example  of  a  kingdom  dismembered  on  mere  reasons  of  con- 
venience. A  preliminary  agreement  was  drawn  up,  in  which 
the  equality  of  the  respective  portions  of  the  three  courts  was 


1€8  CHAPTER   IX. 

assumed  as  the  basis  of  the  intended  partition.  A  negotiation 
was  afterwards  entered  into  at  St.  Petersburg,  for  regulating  the 
portion  to  be  given  to  the  Court  of  Vienna;  as  the  Empress  and 
the  King  of  Prussia,  had  already  agreed  about  the  divisions  to 
which  they  thought  they  might  lay  claim. ^"^ 

At  length  the  formal  conventions  were  signed  at  St.  Peters- 
burg, between  the  ministers  of  the  three  Courts  (Aug.  5,  1772.) 
The  boundaries  of  the  territories  and  districts,  which  were  to 
fall  to  the  share  of  liie  three  powers  respectively,  were  there 
definitively  settled  and  guaranteed  to  each  other.  They  agreed 
to  defer  taking  possession  till  the  month  of  September  following, 
and  to  act  in  concert  for  obtaining  a  final  arrangement  with  the 
Republic  of  Poland.  The  Empress  engaged  by  the  same  treaty 
to  surrender  Moldavia  and  Wallachia  to  the  Turks,  in  order  to 
expedite  the  restoration  of  peace  between  her  and  the  Porte.  In 
terms  of  that  agreement,  the  declarations  and  letters-patent  of 
the  three  Courts,  were  presented  at  Warsaw,  in  September 
1772  ;  and  on  taking  possession  of  the  territories  and  districts 
which  had  been  assigned  them,  they  published  memorials  for 
establishing  the  legitimacy  of  their  right?,  over  the  countries 
which  they  claimed.  The  King  of  Poland  and  his  ministry,  in 
vain  claimed  the  assistance  and  protection  of  the  powers  that 
guaranteed  the  treaties.  They  had  no  other  alternative  left, 
than  to  condescend  to  every  thing  which  the  three  courts  de- 
manded. A  Diet  which  was  summoned  at  Warsaw,  appointed 
a  delegation,  taken  from  the  Senate  and  the  Equestrian  order, 
to  transact  with  the  plenipotentiaries  of  the  three  powers,  as  to 
the  arrangements  of  the  different  treaties  by  which  the  provinces 
already  occupied  were  to  be  formally  ceded  to  them  on  the  part 
of  the  Republic.  These  arrangements  were  signed  at  AVarsaw, 
September  18, 1773,  and  afterwards  ratified  by  the  Diet  of  Poland. 

To  Austria  was  assigned,  in  terms  of  her  treaty  with  the  Re- 
public, the  thirteen  towns  in  the  county  of  Zips,  which  Sigis- 
mund,  King  of  Hungary,  had  mortgaged  to  Poland  in  1412 ; 
besides  nearly  the  half  of  the  Palatinate  of  Cracow,  part  of  Sando- 
mire,  Red  Russia,  the  greater  part  of  Belz,  Pocutia,  and  part  of 
Podolia.  The  towms  in  the  county  of  Zips  were  again  incor- 
porated with  Hungary,  from  which  they  had  been  dismembered ; 
and  all  the  rest  were  erected  into  a  particular  State,  under  the 
name  of  the  kingdom  of  Galicia  and  Lodomeria.  One  very 
important  advantage  in  the  Austrian  division  was,  the  rich  salt 
mines  in  Wieliczka,  and  Bochnia,  and  Sanibor,  which  furnished 
salt  to  the  greater  part  of  Poland. ^^ 

Russia  obtained  for  her  share,  Polish  Livonia,  the  greater 
part  of  Witepsk  and  Polotsk,  the  whole  Palatinate  of  Mscislaw 


PERIOD  vni.    A.  D,  17]8— 1789.  109 

and  the  two  extremities  of  the  Palatinate  of  Minsk.^^  These 
the  Empress  formed  into  two  grand  governments,  those  of  Polotsk 
and  Mochiiew.  The  King  of  Prussia  had  the  states  of  Great 
Poland,  situated  beyond  the  Netze,  as  well  as  the  whole  of 
Polish  Prussia,  except  the  cities  of  Dantzic  and  Thorn,  which 
were  reserved  to  Poland. ^^  That  republic,  in  virtue  of  a  treaty 
with  the  King  of  Prussia,  renounced  also  her  rights  of  domaine, 
and  the  reversion  which  the  treaties  of  Welau  and  Bidgost  had 
secured  to  her  with  regard  to  Electoral  Prussia,  as  well  as  the 
districts  of  Lauenburg,  Butow,  and  Draheim.  The  portion  of 
the  King  of  Prussia  was  so  much  the  more  important  in  a  poli- 
tical point  of  view,  as  it  united  the  kingdom  of  Prussia  with  his 
possessions  in  Germany ;  and,  by  giving  him  the  command  of 
the  Vistula,  it  made  him  master  of  the  commerce  of  Poland  ; 
especially  of  the  corn-trade,  so  valuable  to  the  rest  of  Europe. 

The  three  courts,  in  thus  dismembering  Poland,  renounced, 
in  the  most  formal  manner,  all  farther  pretensions  on  the  re- 
public ;  and,  lastly,  to  consummate  their  work,  they  passed  an 
act  at  Warsaw,  by  which  they  sanctioned  the  liheruin  veto,  and 
the  unanimity  in  their  decisions  formerly  used  at  the  Diet  in 
state  matters ;  the  crown  was  declared  elective,  and  foreign 
princes  were  to  be  excluded.  The  prerogative  of  the  King,  al- 
ready very  limited,  was  circumscribed  still  more  by  the  establish- 
ment of  a  permanent  council ;  and  it  was  statuted,  that  no  one 
could  ever  change  this  constitution,  of  which  the  three  powers 
had  become  the  guarantees. 

[This  partition  of  Poland  must  be  regarded  as  the  harbinger  of 
the  total  overthrow  of  the  political  system  which  for  three  hun- 
dred years  had  prevailed  in  Europe.  After  so  many  alliances 
had  been  formed,  and  so  many  wars  undertaken,  to  preserve  the 
weaker  states  against  the  ambition  of  the  greater,  we  here  find 
three  powers  of  the  first  rank  combining  to  dismember  a  state 
which  had  never  given  them  the  slightest  umbrage.  The  bar 
riers  between  legitimate  right  and  arbitrary  power  were  thus 
overthrown,  and  henceforth  the  destiny  of  inferior  states  was  no 
longer  secure.  The  system  of  political  equilibrium  became  the 
jest  of  innovators,  and  many  well  disposed  men  began  to  regard 
it  as  a  chimera.  Though  the  chief  blame  of  this  transaction 
must  fall  on  the  courts  of  St.  Petersburg,  Berlin,  and  Vienna, 
those  of  London  and  Paris  were  accomplices  to  the  crime,  by 
allowing  this  spoliation  to  be  consummated  without  any  mark  of 
their  reprobation.] 

In  Sweden,  the  aristocratic  system  had  prevailed  since  the 
changes  which  had  been  introduced  into  the  form  of  government 
hy  the  revolution  of  1720.     The  chief  power  resided  in  the  body 

VOL.   7T.  10 


1 10  CHAPTER  IX. 

of  the  Senate,  and  the  royal  authority  was  reduced  to  a  mere 
shadow.  The  same  factions,  the  Hats  and  the  Bonnets,  of  which 
we  have  spoken  above,  continued  to  agitate  and  distract  the  state. 
The  Hats  were  of  opinion,  that  to  raise  the  glory  of  Sweden, 
and  to  recover  the  provinces  of  Livonia  and  Finland,  it  was  ne- 
cessary to  cultivate  friendship  with  France  and  the  Porte,  in 
order  to  secure  their  support  in  case  of  a  rupture  with  Russia. 
The  Bonnets,  on  the  other  hand,  maintained  that  Sweden,  ex- 
hausted by  the  preceding  wars,  ought  to  engage  in  no  under- 
taking against  Russia.  In  preferring  a  system  of  pacification, 
they  had  no  other  object  in  view  than  to  maintain  peace  and 
good  understanding  with  all  states,  without  distinction.  These 
two  factions,  instigated  by  foreign  gold,  acquired  a  new  impor- 
tance when  the  war  broke  out  between  Russia  and  the  Porte. 
It  was  in  the  Diet  of  1769  that  the  Hats  found  means  to  get 
possession  of  the  government,  by  depriving  the  members  of  the 
opposite  party  of  their  principal  employments.  There  was  some 
reason  to  believe  that  France,  in  consequence  of  her  connexions 
with  the  Porte,  had  used  every  effort  to  stir  up  Sweden  against 
Russia,  and  that  the  mission  of  Vergennes,  who  passed  from 
Constantinople  to  Stockholm,  had  no  other  object  than  this. 
Russia  had  then  to  make  every  exertion  to  raise  the  credit  and 
influence  of  the  Bonnets,  in  order  to  maintain  peace  with  Swe- 
den. In  these  endeavours,  she  was  assisted  by  the  Court  of 
London,  who  were  not  only  willing  to  support  the  interests  of 
Russia,  but  glad  of  the  opportunity  to  thwart  France  in  her  po- 
litical career. 

The  death  of  Adolphus  Frederic,  which  happened  in  the 
meantime,  opened  a  new  field  for  intrigue  in  the  Diet,  which 
was  summoned  on  account  of  the  accession  of  his  son  and  suc- 
cessor Gustavus  III.  (Feb.  12,  1771.)  This  young  prince  at 
first  interposed  between  the  two  parties,  with  a  view  to  conciliate 
them ;  but  with  so  little  success,  that  it  rather  increased  their 
animosity,  until  the  Bonnets,  who  were  supported  by  Russia  and 
England,  went  so  far  as  to  resolve  on  the  total  expulsion  of  the 
Hats,  not  only  from  the  senate,  but  from  all  other  places  and 
dignities  in  the  kingdom.  Licentiousness  then  became  extreme  ; 
and  circumscribed  as  the  royal  power  already  was  in  the  time  of 
Adolphus  Frederic,  they  demanded  new  restrictions  to  be  imposed 
on  his  successor.  The  treaties  that  were  projected  with  Russia 
and  England,  were  evidently  the  result  of  the  system  adopted  by 
that  faction  who  had  now  seized  the  reins  of  government. 

In  this  state  of  affairs,  the  young  king  saw  the  necessity  of 
aiiempting  some  change  in  the  system  of  administration.  His 
gentleness  and  eloquence,  and  his  affable  and  popular  manners. 


PERIOD  vm.     A.  D.  1713 — 1789.  Ill 

iiad  gained  him  a  number  of  partisans.  He  possessed  in  an 
eminent  degree  the  art  of  dissimulation  ;  and  while  he  was 
making  every  arrangement  for  a  revolution,  and  concerting  mea- 
sures in  secret  with  the  French  ambassador,  he  seemed  to  have 
nothing  so  much  at  heart  as  to  convince  the  world  of  his  sincere 
attachment  to  the  established  constitution.  It  is  alleged,  that  he 
had  sent  emissaries  over  the  whole  kingdom  to  stir  up  the  people 
against  their  governors ;  and  that  he  might  have  some  pretext 
for  calling  out  his  troops,  he  induced  Captain  Hellichius,  the 
commandant  of  Christianstadt  in  Blekingen,  to  raise  the  standard 
of  revolt  against  the  states  who  still  continued  their  sittings  at 
Stockholm. 

That  officer,  known  afterwards  by  the  name  of  Gustafsckeld, 
or  the  Shield  of  Gzistavus^  published  at  first  a  kind  of  manifesto, 
in  which  he  reproached  the  States  for  their  misconduct ;  which 
he  showed  to  have  been  diametrically  opposite  to  the  public  in- 
terest and  the  laws  of  the  kingdom.  Prince  Charles,  the  King's 
brother,  who  was  at  that  time  at  Landscrona  in  Schonen,  being 
informed  of  the  proceedings  of  the  commandant  of  Christianstadt, 
immediately  assembled  the  troops  in  the  provinces,  and  marched 
to  that  place,  with  the  intention,  as  is  said,  of  stifling  the  revolt 
in  its  birth.  The  news  of  this  insurrection  spread  consternation 
in  the  capital.  The  States  were  suspicious  of  the  King,  and  took 
measures  to  prevent  the  ambitious  designs  which  they  supposed 
him  to  entertain.  Hellichius  was  proclaimed  a  rebel  by  the 
Senate,  and  guilty  of  high  treason.  They  advised  the  King  not 
to  quit  Stockholm,  the  command  of  which  was  intrusted  to  a 
senator,  the  Count  of  Kalling,  with  the  most  ample  powers.  At 
length  the  regiment  of  Upland,  whose  officers  were  devoted  to 
the  Senate,  were  ordered  to  the  capital,  with  the  intention,  as  is 
supposed,  of  arresting  the  King.  That  prince  then  saw  that  he 
had  no  longer  time  to  delay,  and  that  he  must  finish  the  execu- 
tion of  the  plan  which  he  had  proposed. 

On  the  morning  of  the  19th  of  August,  the  King  presented 
himself  to  the  troops  who  mounted  guard  at  the  palace ;  and 
having  assembled  the  officers,  he  detailed  to  them  the  unfortu- 
nate state  of  the  kingdom,  as  being  the  consequence  of  those 
dissensions  which  had  distracted  the  Diet  for  more  than  fourteen 
months.  He  pointed  out  to  them  the  necessity  of  abolishing  that 
haughty  aristocracy  who  had  ruined  the  state,  and  to  restore  the 
constitution  to  what  it  was  before  the  revolution  of  1680  ;  ex- 
pressing at  the  same  time  his  decided  aversion  for  absolute  and 
despotic  power.  Being  assured  of  the  fidelity  of  the  guards, 
who  were  eager  to  take  the  oath  of  allegiance  to  him,  he  ordered 
a  detachment  to  surround  the  Council  Chamber  where  the  Se- 


112  CHAPTER  IX. 

nators  were  assembled,  and  put  the  leaders  of  the  ruling  party 
under  arrest.  The  artillery  and  other  regiments  of  guards  hav- 
ing also  acknowledged  his  authority,  their  example  was  soon 
followed  by  all  the  colleges  (or  public  offices,)  both  civil  and 
military.  The  arrest  against  Hellichius  was  revoked,  and  the 
regiment  of  Upland  received  orders  to  march  back.  These  mea- 
sures and  some  others  were  executed  with  so  much  skill  and 
punctuality,  that  the  public  tranquillity  was  never  disturbed ; 
and  by  five  o'clock  in  the  evening  of  the  same  day,  the  revolu- 
tion seemed  to  be  accomplished  without  shedding  a  single  drop 
of  blood.  Next  day,  the  magistrates  of  the  city  took  the  oath  to 
the  King,  and  the  assembly  of  the  States  was  summoned  to  meet 
on  the  21st.  On  that  day  the  King  caused  the  palace  to  be  sur- 
rounded by  troops,  and  cannons  to  be  pointed  into  the  court  op- 
posite the  Chamber  of  the  States.  Seated  on  his  throne,  and 
surrounded  by  his  guards,  the  King  opened  the  assembly  by  an 
energetic  discourse  which  he  addressed  to  the  members,  in  which 
he  painted,  in  lively  colours,  the  deplorable  state  of  the  kingdom, 
and  the  indispensable  necessity  of  applying  some  prompt  remedy. 
The  new  form  of  government  which  he  had  prepared  was  read 
by  his  orders,  and  adopted  without  opposition  by  the  whole  four 
orders  of  the  kingdom.  The  king  then  drew  a  psalm-book  from 
his  pocket,  and  taking  off  his  crown,  began  to  sing  Te  Deum,  in 
which  he  was  joined  by  the  whole  assembly.  Matters  passed 
in  the  interior  of  the  provinces  with  as  little  tumult  and  opposi- 
tion as  in  the  capital  and  principal  cities.  The  King's  brothers 
received,  in  his  name,  the  oath  of  fidelity  on  the  part  of  the  in- 
habitants and  the  military. 

In  virtue  of  this  new  form  of  government,  all  the  fundamen- 
tal laws  introduced  since  1680  were  cancelled  and  abolished. 
The  succession  to  the  throne  was  restricted  to  males  only. 
The  lineal  order,  and  the  right  of  primogeniture,  as  settled  by 
the  convention  of  1743,  and  by  the  decree  of  the  Diet  of  1750, 
were  confirmed.  The  King  was  to  govern  alone,  according  to 
the  laws ;  and  the  Senate  were  to  be  considered  as  his  counsel- 
lors. All  the  senators  were  to  be  nominated  by  the  King,  and 
matters  were  no  longer  to  be  decided  by  a  plurality  of  votes. 
The  senators  were  simply  to  give  their  advice,  and  the  decision 
belonged  to  the  King.  Courts  of  justice,  however,  were  ex- 
cepted. The  chief  command  of  all  the  forces  in  the  kingdom, 
both  by  sea  and  land,  and  the  supreme  direction  of  the  Exche- 
quer, were  conferred  on  the  King.  On  the  report  of  the  senate, 
he  filled  up  all  the  high  offices  in  the  state,  both  military,  civil, 
and  ecclesiastical.  He  alone  had  the  right  of  pardoning,  and 
of  summoning  the  States,  who  could  nev^  assemble  on  their 


PERIOD  vm.     A.  D.  1713 — 1789.  113 

own  authority,  except  in  a  case  where  the  throne  became  vacant, 
by  the  total  extinction  of  the  royal  family  in  the  male  line.  The 
duration  of  the  Diets  was  fixed  for  three  months,  and  the  King 
had  the  privilege  of  dissolving  them  at  the  end  of  that  time. 
He  could  make  no  new  laws,  nor  interpret  the  old  ones,  nor  im- 
pose subsidies  or  assessments,  nor  declare  war,  without  the  ad- 
Ace  and  consent  of  the  States.  He  was  allowed,  however,  to 
levy  an  extraordinary  tax,  in  cases  where  the  kingdom  might 
be  attacked  by  sudden  invasion  ;  but  on  the  termination  of  the 
war,  the  States  were  to  be  assembled,  and  the  new  tax  discon- 
tinued. All  negotiations  for  peace,  truces,  and  alliances,  whe- 
ther offensive  or  defensive,  were  reserved  to  the  King,  by  whom 
they  were  to  be  referred  to  the  Senate.  If,  in  these  cases,  the 
unanimous  voice  of  the  Senate  was  opposed  to  that  of  the 
King,  it  became  his  duty  to  acquiesce  in  their  opinion.  Every 
Swedish  citizen  was  to  be  judged  by  his  natural  judge.  The 
King  could  attaint  neither  the  life,  honour,  nor  fortune  of  any 
citizen,  otherwise  than  by  the  legal  forms.  All  extraordinary 
commissions  or  tribunals  were  to  be  suppressed,  as  tending  to 
establish  tyranny  and  despotism. 

The  revolution  of  Stockholm,  of  which  we  have  just  now 
spoken,  had  nothing  in  common  with  that  which  happened  at  Co- 
penhagen the  same  year  ;  and  which,  without  in  any  way  af- 
fecting the  constitution  of  the  kingdom,  merely  transferred  the 
reins  of  government  from  the  hands  of  the  reigning  Queen  to 
those  of  the  Queen-dowager.^'*- 

In  a  remote  corner  of  Europe,  there  existed  an  association  of 
warriors,  of  a  kind  quite  peculiar,  namely,  that  of  the  Zaparog 
Cossacs  ;  so  called  because  they  dwelt  near  the  cataracts  of  the 
Dnieper,  where  they  served  as  a  military  frontier,  first  to  the 
Poles,  and  afterwards  to  the  Russians.  The  chief  residence  of 
these  Cossacs  was  called  Setscha.  It  contained  a  considerable 
mass  of  houses,  scattered  and  badly  constructed,  and  had  a 
small  fort  occupied  by  a  Russian  garrison.  The  position  of 
Setscha  had  not  always  been  the  same  ;  but  it  was  ultimately 
fixed  on  the  western  bank  of  the  Borysthenes,  opposite  Kame- 
noi-Saton,  an  ancient  fortress  of  the  Russians,  and  was  called 
New  Setscha.  These  Cossacs,  knowm  in  Poland  by  the  name 
of  Haydamacs,  and  formidable  by  their  incursions  and  their  de- 
vastations, had  adopted  a  republican  form  of  government.  Their 
capital  was  divided  into  thirty  Kurenes,  or  quarters.  Every 
Cossac  belonged  to  one  of  these  Kurenes.  There  he  lodged 
when  he  stayed  at  Setscha,  and  was  obliged  to  conform  to  its 
laws.  All  those  who  belonged  to  the  same  Kurene,  formed  as  it 
were  one  and  the  same  family.  Like  the  ancient  Spartans^ 
VOL.  II.  10^ 


114  CHAPTER  Et. 

thev  were  nourished  with  the  same  food,  and  ate  at  the  same 
tabfe.  The  overseer  of  each  separate  Kurene  was  called  Ata- 
maTif  and  the  chief  of  all  the  Kurenes  Koschewoi- Ataman.  All 
the  chie-fs,  without  distinction,  were  elected  by  common  consent; 
the  Ataman  by  his  own  Kurene,  and  the  Koschewoi  by  the 
whole  Kurenes  united.  They  were  deposed  whenever  they  be- 
came unpopular.  The  assemblies  of  Setscha  were  either  ordi- 
nary or  extraordinary.  In  that  which  was  regularly  held  every 
year  on  the  1st  of  January,  they  made  a  formal  division  of  the 
fields,  rivers,  and  lakes,  among  the  Kurenes.  They  made  use 
of  lots  in  order  to  avoid  disputes  ;  and  they  renewed  them  every 
year,  that  a  favourable  chance  might  be  given  to  all  the  Kurenes 
in  succession.  At  that  assembly  they  elected  new  chiefs,  if  ihey 
happened  to  be  discontented  with  the  old  ones.  As  for  the  ex- 
traordinary assemblies,  they  were  held  when  it  was  in  agitation 
to  undertake  a  campaign,  or  to  make  an  excursion  ;  and  gene 
rally  on  all  occasions  when  the  common  interest  seemed  to  re- 
quire it.  They  had  a  judge  and  some  other  officers  in  Setscha. 
The  judge  never  pronounced  sentence  except  in  affairs  of  little 
importance.  Those  which  appeared  more  v/eighty  required  the 
intervention  of  all  the  chiefs.  They  would  suffer  no  woman  to 
remain  in  Setscha.  Those  who  were  inclined  to  marry  were 
obliged  to  remove  elsewhere.  To  keep  up  their  numbers  the 
Zaparogs  received  deserters  and  fugitives  from  all  nations. 
They  were  particularly  careful  to  recruit  their  ranks  with  young 
boys,  whom  they  kidnapped  in  their  excursions  ;  and  brought 
them  up  according  to  their  customs  and  manner  of  living. 

The  treaty  of  Andrussov  between  Russia  and  Poland  had 
left  these  Cossacs  under  the  common  protection  of  those  two 
States.  They  preferred  that  of  Russia,  and  were  continued 
under  the  dominion  of  that  power  by  the  peace  of  Moscow. 
Being  afterwards  implicated  in  the  revolt  of  Mazeppa,  they  put 
themselves  under  the  protection  of  the  Tartars  of  the  Crimea  af- 
ter the  battle  of  Pullowa,  and  transferred  their  capital  of  Setscha 
to  the  eastern  bank  of  the  Dnieper,  nearer  its  mouth.  Being 
discontented  under  the  Tartai's,  who  repressed  their  incursions, 
and  often  imposed  exactions  on  Setscha,  they  took  the  resolution 
of  putting  themselves  once  more  under  the  dominion  of  Rus- 
sia (1733.)  The  Empress  Anne  confirmed  them  in  their  pri- 
vileges, and  furnished  money  to  assist  them  in  rebuilding  their 
capital  on  the  western  bank  of  the  Dnieper. 

As  they  continued,  however,  to  commit  robbery  and  plunder 
on  the  frontiers  without  intermission,  and  having  neither  friends 
nor  allies,  Catherine  II.  resolved  to  annihilate  this  fantastic  as- 
sociation.    Besides  their  depredations,  the  Zaparogs  were  ac- 


FERioD  vin.     A.  D.  1713—1789.  lib 

cused  of  having  usurped  possession  of  several  countries  between 
the  Dnieper  and  the  Bog;  as  well  as  of  several  districts  which 
had  at  all  times  belonged  to  the  Cossacs  of  the  Don.  What 
more  particularly  exasperated  the  Empress  against  them,  was, 
that  bemg  so  obstinately  attached  to  their  absurd  form  of  go- 
vernment, they  opposed  every  scheme  of  reform,  the  object  of 
which  was  to  make  them  live  in  re-jular  society,  and  in  the 
bonds  of  matrimony ;  or  to  induce  them  to  form  themselves  into 
regiments,  after  the  manner  of  the  other  Cossacs.  They  had 
also  refused  to  send  their  deputies  to  Moscow,  at  the  time  when 
Catherine  had  sent  for  them  from  all  parts  of  the  Empire,  for 
the  formation  of  a  new  code  of  laws  ;  and  there  was  some  rea- 
son to  fear  they  might  attempt  to  revolt,  on  account  of  the 
changes  which  the  Empress  proposed  to  make  in  the  adminis- 
tration of  the  government.  These  and  other  considerations  in- 
duced that  princess  to  despatch  a  body  of  troops  against  Setscha 
(1775.)  The  Zaparogs,  attacked  unawares,  and  inclosed  on  all 
hands,  saw  themselves  without  the  means  of  making  the  least 
resistance.  Their  capital  was  destroyed,  and  their  whole  tribe 
dispersed.  Those  who  were  not  inclined  to  embrace  another 
kind  of  life,  were  sent  back  to  their  native  towns  and  their  re- 
spective countries. 

The  succession  of  Bavaria  reverted  of  right  to  the  Elector 
Palatine,  Charles  Theodore,  as  head  of  the  elder  branch  of  Wit- 
telsbach.  That  prince  had  on  his  side,  the  Feudal  Law  of  Ger- 
many, the  Golden  Bull,  the  peace  of  Westphalia,  and  family 
compacts  frequently  renewed  between  the  two  branches  of  that 
house  ;  all  Europe  was  persuaded  that,  should  the  case  so  turn 
out,  the  rights  of  the  Elector  Palatine  w^ould  be  beyond  all  con- 
troversy. Meantime,  the  Elector  Maximilian  had  scarcely 
closed  his  eyes,  when  several  pretenders  appeared  on  the  field,  to 
dispute  the  succession  as  his  presumptive  heirs.  The  Emperor 
Joseph  II.  claimed  all  the  fiefs  of  the  Empire,  which  his  pre- 
decessors had  conferred  on  the  house  of  Bavaria,  without  ex- 
pressly including  the  princes  of  the  Palatine  branch  in  these 
investitures.  The  Empress,  Maria  Theresa,  besides  the  fiefs  of 
the  Upper  Palatinate  holding  of  the  crown  of  Bohemia,  demand- 
ed all  the  countries  and  district!  of  Lower  and  Upper  Bavaria, 
as  well  as  of  the  Upper  Palatinate,  which  had  been  possessed  by 
the  Princes  of  Bavaria-Straubingen,  who  had  become  extinct  in 
1425.  She  also  alleged  a  pretended  investiture,  which  the  Em- 
peror Sigismund  had  granted,  in  1426,  to  his  son-in-law  Duke 
Albert  of  Austria.  The  Electress-Dowager  of  Saxony,  sister  to 
the  last  Elector  of  Bavaria,  thought  herself  entitled  to  claim  the 
allodial  succession,  which  she  made  out  to  be  very  extensive. 


116  CHAPTER  IX. 

Lastly,  the  Dukes  of  Mecklenburg  brought  forward  an  ancietis 
deed  of  reversion,  which  their  ancestors  had  obtained  from  ths 
Emperors,  over  the  iandgraviate  of  Leuchtenberg. 

Before  these  different  claims  could  be  made  known,  the  Aus- 
trian troops  had  entered  Bavaria,  immediately  after  the  death  of 
the  late  Elector,  and  taken  possession  of  all  the  countries  and 
districts  claimed  by  the  Emperor  and  the  Empress-Queen.  The 
Elector  Palatine,  intimidated  by  the  Cabinet  of  Vienna,  ac- 
knowledged the  lawfulness  of  all  the  claims  of  that  court,  by  a 
convention  which  was  signed  at  Vienna  (Jan.  3,  1778,)  but  which 
the  Duke  of  Deux-Ponts,  his  successor  and  heir  presumptive, 
refused  to  ratify.  That  prince  was  supported  in  his  opposition 
by  the  King  of  Prussia,  who  treated  the  pretensions  of  Austria 
as  chimerical,  and  as  being  incompatible  with  the  security  of  the 
constitution  of  the  Germanic  body.  The  King  interposed  in  this 
affair,  as  being  a  guarantee  for  the  peace  of  Westphalia,  and  a 
friend  and  ally  of  the  parties  concerned,  who  all  claimed  his  pro- 
tection. He  demanded  of  the  Court  of  Vienna,  that  they  should 
withdraw  their  troops  from  Bavaria,  and  restore  to  the  Elector 
the  territories  of  which  they  had  deprived  him.  A  negotiation 
on  this  subject  was  opened  between  the  two  courts,  and  numerous 
controversial  writings  were  published  ;  but  the  proposals  of  the 
King  of  Prussia  not  proving  agreeable  to  the  court  of  Vienna, 
the  conferences  were  broken  off  about  the  end  of  June  1778,  and 
both  parties  began  to  make  preparations  for  war. 

It  was  about  the  beginning  of  July  when  the  King  of  Prussia 
entered  Bohemia,  through  the  county  of  Glatz,  and  pitched  his 
camp  between  Jaromitz  and  Konigratz,  opposite  that  of  the  Em- 
peror and  Marshal  Daun,  from  which  he  was  only  separated  by 
the  Elbe.  Another  army,  composed  of  Prussians  and  Saxons, 
and  commanded  by  Prince  Henry  of  Prussia,  penetrated  into 
Bohemia  through  Lusatia  ;  but  they  were  stopped  in  their  march 
by  Marshal  Laudohn,  who  had  taken  up  a  very  advantageous 
position,  and  defeated  all  the  measures  of  the  Prince  of  Prussia. 
At  length  a  third  Prussian  army  marched  into  Austria  and  Sile- 
sia, and  occupied  the  greater  part  of  that  province.  Europe  had 
never  seen  armies  more  numerous  and  better  disciplined,  and 
commanded  by  such  experienced  generals,  approach  each  other 
so  nearly  without  some  memorable  action  taking  place.  The 
Emperor  and  his  generals  had  the  good  sense  to  act  on  the  de- 
fensive ;  while  the  efforts  of  the  King  of  Prussia,  to  bring  him  to 
a  general  engagement,  proved  altogether  unavailing.  This 
prince,  who  had  lost  a  great  many  men  by  sickness  and  deser- 
tion, was  compelled  to  evacuate  Bohemia  about  the  end  of  Oc- 
tober, and  his  example  was  soon  followed  by  his  brother  Prince 


PERIOD  VIII.      A.  D.  1713—1789.  117 

Henry.  At  th«=  beginning  of  this  first  campaign,  the  Empress- 
Queen  being  desirous  of  peace,  had  sent  Baron  Thugut  to  the 
King  of  Prussia,  to  offer  him  new  proposals.  A  conference  was 
agreed  to  take  place  at  the  convent  of  Brau^iau  (Aug.  1778,) 
which  had  no  better  success  than  the  preceding,  on  account  of 
the  belligerous  disposition  of  the  Emperor,  who  was  for  continu- 
ing the  war.  At  length  the  return  of  peace  was  brought  about 
by  the  powerful  intervention  of  the  courts  of  Versailles  and  St. 
Petersburg. 

France,  who  was  obliged,  by  the  terms  of  her  alliance  with 
Austria,  to  furnish  supplies  for  the  Empress-Queen,  could  not  in 
the  present  case  reconcile  this  engagement  with  the  interests  of 
her  crown,  nor  with  the  obligations  which  the  treaty  of  West- 
phalia had  imposed  upon  her,  v/ith  respect  to  the  Germanic  body. 
Besides,  the  war  which  had  broken  out  between  her  and  England, 
on  account  of  her  alliance  with  the  United  States  of  America, 
made  her  anxious  for  the  restoration  of  peace  on  the  Continent, 
for  avoiding  every  thing  which  might  occasion  a  diversion  of  her 
maritime  forces.  The  Empress  of  Russia,  who  thought  her 
glory  interested,  could  not  remain  a  quiet  spectator  of  a  struggle 
which,  if  prolonged,  might  set  all  Europe  in  a  flame.  She  de- 
clared to  the  Court  of  Vienna,  that  in  consequence  of  the  ties  of 
friendship  and  alliance  which  subsisted  between  her  and  the 
Court  of  Berlin,  she  would  find  herself  called  on  to  join  her 
troops  to  those  of  Prussia,  if  the  war  was  to  be  continued.  But, 
before  coming  to  that  extremity,  she  would  interpose  her  good 
offices,  conjointly  with  France,  to  bring  existing  differences  to  an 
amicable  conclusion. 

The  mediation  of  these  two  courts  having  been  accepted  by 
the  belligerent  powers,  a  congress  was  summoned  at  Teschen,  in 
Silesia,  which  was  opened  in  the  month  of  March  1779.  The 
Empress  of  Russia,  to  give  the  greater  weight  to  her  interfer- 
ence, despatched  a  body  of  troops  to  the  frontiers,  destined  to  act 
as  auxiliaries  under  the  King  of  Prussia,  in  case  the  war  should 
happen  to  be  renewed.  Prince  Repnin,  w^ho  commanded  that 
body,  appeared,  at  the  same  time,  in  the  capacity  of  ambassador- 
extraordinary  at  the  Congress.  France  sent,  on  her  part,  Baron 
de  Breteuil,  her  ambassador  at  the  Court  of  Vienna.  All  things 
being  already  prepared,  and  the  principal  difficulties  removed, 
the  peace  was  concluded  in  less  than  two  months.  By  this  treaty, 
the  convention  of  the  3d  of  January,  made  between  the  Court 
of  Vienna  and  the  Elector  Palatine,  w^as  annulled.  Austria  was 
required  to  give  up  all  her  possessions  in  Bavaria,  except  the 
places  and  districts  situated  between  the  Danube,  the  Inn,  and 
ihe  Salza,  which  were  ceded  to  her  as  all  she  could  claim  of  the 


A 18  CHAPTER  IX. 

succession  of  Bavaria,  v/hich  she  had  renounced  in  the  most  for 
mal  manner.     The  fiefs  of  the  Empire,  which  had  been  confer- 
red on  the  House  of  Bavaria,  were  secured  by  that  treaty  to  the 
Elector  Palatine  and  his  whole  family  ;  as  well  as  those  situated 
in  the  Upper  Palatinate,  and  holding  of  the  Crown  of  Bohemia. 

The  Elector  Palatine  engaged  to  pay  the  Elector  of  Saxony, 
for  his  allodial  rights,  the  sum  of  six  millions  of  florins,  money 
of  the  Empire  ;  while  the  Empress-Queen  gave  up  to  the  said 
prince  the  rights  which  the  crown  of  Bohemia  had  over  certain 
seigniories  lying  within  Saxony,  and  possessed  by  the  Counts  of 
Schonburg.  The  Palatine  branch  of  Birkenfeldt,  whose  right  of 
succession  to  the  Palatine  estates  had  been  disputed,  on  the 
giound  of  their  being  the  issue  of  an  unequal  marriage,  were 
now  declared  capable  of  succeeding  to  all  the  estates  and  pos- 
sessions of  the  House  of  Wittlesbach,  as  comprehended  in  the 
family  compacts  of  that  house. 

The  existing  treaties  between  the  Court  of  Vienna  and  the 
King  of  Prussia,  and  also  those  of  Westphalia,  Breslau,  Berlin, 
and  Dresden,  were  renewed  and  confirmed;  and  a  formal  ac- 
knowledgment made  to  the  royal  line  of  Prussia,  of  their  right 
to  unite  the  margraviates  of  Baireuth  and  Anspach,  failing  the 
picjsent  possessors,  to  the  hereditary  succession  of  the  Electorate 
oi  Brandenburg ;  which  right  the  House  of  Austria  had  called 
in  question  during  the  dispute  v/hich  we  have  already  mention- 
ea.  As  for  the  House  of  Mecklenburg,  they  granted  to.  it  the 
privilege  of  the  nan  appellando,  in  virtue  of  which,  no  one  could 
carry  an  appeal  from  the  tribunals  of  that  country  to  the  sove- 
reign courts  of  the  Empire.  The  two  mediating  powers  under- 
took to  guarantee  this  treaty.  Thus  the  war  for  the  succession 
of  Bavaria  was  checked  at  its  commencement.  The  following 
peculiarities  are  worthy  of  remark,  viz.  that  the  Palatine  family, 
who  were  the  party  chiefly  interested,  took  no  share  in  it ;  while 
Bavaria,  the  sole  cause  of  the  war,  was  no  way  engaged  in  it , 
and  the  Elector  Palatine,  who  had  even  refused  the  assistance 
of  the  King  of  Prussia,  was,  nevertheless,  the  party  chiefly  ben- 
efited by  the  peace,  by  means  of  the  protection  of  that  prince. 

The  House  of  Austria  having  failed,  as  we  have  just  seen,  in 
her  project  of  conquering  Bavaria,  tried,  in  the  next  place,  to 
get  possession  of  that  country  by  way  of  exchange  for  the  Ne- 
therlands. The  Elector  Palatine  appeared  willing  to  meet  the 
views  of  the  Court  of  Vienna ;  but  it  was  not  so  with  the  Duke 
of  Deux-Ponts,  who  haughtily  opposed  the  exchange  ;  while  the 
King  of  Prussia,  who  supported  it,  was  obliged  to  acknowledge 
that  such  an  exchange  was  inadmissible,  and  in  opposition  both 
to  former  treaties,  and  to  the  best  interests  of  the  Germanic  body 


PERIOD  VIII.      A.  D.  1713—1789.  119 

The  Court  of  Vienna  then  abandoned  this  project,  at  least  in 
appearance ;  but  the  alarm  which  it  had  caused  throughout  the 
Empire,  gave  rise  to  an  association,  known  by  the  name  of  the 
Germanic  Confederation.  It  was  concluded  at  Berlin  (July 
23,  1785,)  between  the  three  Electors  of  Saxony,  Brandenburg, 
and  Brunswick-Luneburg ;  besides  several  provinces  of  the  Im- 
perial State  who  adhered  to  it.  This  association,  purely  de- 
fensive, had  no  other  object  than  the  preservation  of  the  Ger- 
manic System,  with  the  rights  and  possessions  of  all  its  members. 

The  Revolution  in  North  America,  deserves  to  be  placed 
among  the  number  of  those  great  events  which  belong  to  the 
general  history  of  Europe.  Bes'des  the  sanguinary  war  which 
it  kindled  between  France  and  England,  and  in  which  Spain 
and  Holland  were  also  implicated,  it  may  be  regarded  as  the 
harbinger  of  those  revolutions  which  took  place  soon  after  in 
several  of  the  Continental  States  of  Europe.  The  English 
colonies  in  North  America  were  no  otherwise  connected  with 
the  mother  country,  than  by  a  government  purely  civil,  by  a 
similarity  of  manners,  and  by  customs,  which  long  usage  had 
rendered  sacred.  They  were  divided  into  provinces,  each  ot 
which  had  its  particular  constitution  more  or  less  analogous  to 
that  of  England,  but  imperfectly  united  with  the  mother  coun 
try,  because  the  inhabitants  of  these  provinces  were  not  repre- 
sented in  the  national  Parliament.  If  they  had  been  so,  Great 
Britain  would  certainly  never  have  enjoyed  that  monopoly  which 
she  had  reserved  to  herself,  agreeably  to  the  colonial  system  of 
all  modern  nations.  The  exclusive  privilege  of  sending  her 
commodities  to  the  Americans,  by  fettering  their  industry,  alien- 
ated their  affections  from  England,  and  made  them  naturally  de 
sirous  of  shaking  ofi'  her  yoke  ;  and  this  propensity  could  not 
fail  to  increase,  in  proportion  as  these  colonies  increased  in 
strength,  population,  and  wealth. 

One  consideration,  however,  likely  to  secure  their  allegiance, 
was  the  protection  which  England  granted  them  against  their 
powerful  neighbours  the  French  in  Canada,  the  Spaniards  in 
Florida,  and  the  Barbarians  in  the  West.  The  Canadians,  es- 
pecially, proved  daring  and  troublesome  neighbours  to  New  Eng- 
land, which  rendered  the  assistance  and  protection  of  the  mother 
country  indispensable.  The  aspect  of  affairs  changed  at  the 
time  of  the  peace  of  Paris  (1763.)  England,  by  getting  pos- 
session of  Canada  and  Florida,  broke  the  main  tie  which  at- 
tached the  colonies  to  her  government.  Delivered  then  from 
the  terror  of  the  French,  and  having  no  more  need  of  foreign 
succour  to  protect  them  from  their  attacks,  the  Americans  began 
to  concert  measures  for  extricating  themselves  from  the  domin- 
ion of  Britain. 


120  CHAPTER  IX. 

The  first  disturbances  that  broke  out  were  occasioned  by  the 
attempts  which  the  British  Parliament  had  made  to  impose 
taxes  on  the  Americans.  The  national  debt  of  England  having 
increased  considerably  during  the  preceding  war,  the  Parlia- 
ment thought  they  had  a  right  to  oblige  the  colonies  to  furnish 
their  quota  for  the  liquidation  of  that  debt,  which  had  been  con- 
tracted, in  part,  for  the  interests  of  America.  The  Parliament 
passed  an  act,  according  to  which  all  contracts  in  the  American 
colonies  were  to  be  drawn  upon  stamped  paper  ;  and  the  tax  on 
the  stamp  was  regulated  according  to  the  different  objects  of  the 
contract.  When  this  act  had  passed  into  a  law,  and  was  about 
to  be  carried  into  effect  in  America,  it  caused  a  general  insur- 
rection. The  people  committed  all  sorts  of  excesses  and  abuses 
against  the  King's  officers.  The  Courts  of  Justice  were  shut 
up,  and  the  colonies  began  to  form  associations  among  them- 
selves. They  disputed  the  right  of  the  British  Parliament  to 
impose  taxes  on  them  ;  alleging  that  they  were  not  represented 
there,  and  that  it  was  the  constitutional  privilege  of  every  Eng- 
lishman, not  to  be  taxed  except  by  means  of  his  own  represen- 
tatives. The  colonies  having  thus  attacked  the  sovereignty  and 
legislative  power  of  the  Parliament,  laid  an  interdict  on  all 
commerce  with  the  mother  country,  and  forbade  the  purchase 
of  commodities  imported  from  Great  Britain. 

The  Parliament  rescinded  the  Stamp  act.  They  published, 
however,  a  declaratory  act  which  set  forth,  that  the  colonies 
were  subordinate  to,  and  dependent  on,  the  Crown  and  Parlia- 
ment of  Great  Britain,  in  whom  resided  full  power  and  au- 
thority to  make  laws  and  statutes  binding  on  the  colonies,  in  all 
possible  cases.  The  provincial  assemblies  of  the  colonists  were 
enjoined,  by  that  act,  to  receive  into  their  towns  whatever  num- 
ber of  British  troops  the  mother  country  might  think  proper  to 
send,  and  to  furnish  them  with  wood  and  beer.  Far  from  al- 
laying these  disturbances,  this  new  act  tended,  on  the  contrary, 
to  exasperate  them  still  more.  The  Americans  considered  it  as 
tyrannical,  and  as  having  no  other  design  than  to  destroy  the 
foundation  of  their  liberty,  and  to  establish  an  absolute  and 
despotic  power. 

The  British  ministry  made  still  farther  concessions.  They 
abandoned  altogether  the  idea  of  a  tax  to  be  levied  in  the  in- 
terior of  the  country,  and  limited  themselves  entirely  to  taxes 
or  duties  on  imported  goods.  The  Stamp  act  was  replaced  by 
another  (1767,)  which  imposed  certain  duties  on  tea,  paper, 
lead,  and  paint-colours,  &c.  &c.  exported  from  England  into  the 
colonies.  This  act  was  no  better  received  than  its  predecessor. 
The  Assembly  of  Massachusetts,  which  was  formed  at  Boston, 


TERioD  vm.     A.  D.  1713—1789.  181 

addressed  circular  letters  to  all  the  colonies,  exhorting  them  to 
act  in  concert  for  the  support  of  their  rights  against  the  mother 
country.  The  resolutions  which  some  of  the  colonies  had  al- 
ready adopted,  of  prohibiting  tho  use  of  commodities  manufac- 
tured in  Great  Britain,  became  common  to  all  the  colonies ;  and 
the  American  merchants  in  general,  countermanded  the  goods 
which  they  had  ordered  from  England,  Scotland,  and  Ireland. 
The  spirit  of  revolt  thus  extending  wider  and  wider,  the  British 
government  determined  to  employ  troops  for  the  restoration  of 
order  and  tranquillity  in  the  colonies,  and  making  them  respect 
the  sovereignty  of  Great  Britain  (1769.) 

Affairs  were  in  this  situation  when  Lord  North,  who  had  been 
placed  at  the  head  of  the  administiation,  succeeded  in  calming 
the  minds  of  the  colonists,  by  passing  an  act  which  abolished 
the  obnoxious  taxes,  with  the  single  exception  of  that  on  tea. 
The  view  of  the  minister  in  retaining  this  tax,  was  not  of  reap- 
ing any  advantage  from  it ;  but  he  hoped  by  this  trifling  duty 
to  accustom  the  colonies  to  support  greater  taxes.  The  Ameri- 
cans were  very  sensible  of  this  ;  however,  as  they  imported  very 
little  tea  from  England,  and  as  the  Dutch  furnished  them  with 
this  article  by  way  of  contraband,  they  showed  no  symptoms  of 
resentment  until  the  year  1773.  At  that  time,  the  Parliament 
having  given  permission  to  the  East  India  Company  to  export 
tea  to  America,  of  which  they  had  large  supplies  in  their  ware- 
houses, the  Americans,  indignant  to  see  this  Company  made  the 
organ  of  a  law  which  was  odious  to  them,  resolved  to  oppose  the 
landing  of  these  tea  cargoes.  Three  of  the  Company's  vessels, 
freighted  with  this  article,  having  arrived  at  Boston,  and  prepa- 
ring to  unload,  the  inhabitants  boarded  them  during  the  night 
of  the  21st  of  December,  and  threw  all  the  chests  into  the  sea, 
to  the  number  of  342.  In  the  other  provinces,  they  only  sent 
back  the  ships  loaded  with  this  obnoxious  commodity. 

On  the  news  of  this  outrage,  the  British  Parliament  thought 
it  necessary  to  adopt  rigorous  measures.  Three  acts  were  passed 
in  succession  (1774,)  the  first  to  lay  the  port  of  Boston  under  in- 
terdict ;  the  second  to  abolish  the  constitution  and  democratic 
government  of  Massachusetts,  and  substitute  a  royal  govern- 
ment; and  the  third  to  authorize  the  colonial  governors  to  trans- 
port to  England  the  Americans  who  were  accused  of  rebellion, 
to  be  tried  at  the  Court  of  King's  Bench.  General  Gage  was  sent 
to  Boston  with  a  body  of  troops  and  several  vessels  to  carry  these 
coercive  measures  into  effect.  By  thus  adopting  decisive  mea- 
sures, the  British  Parliament  in  vain  flattered  themselves,  that 
they  could  reduce,  by  force,  a  continent  so  vast,  and  so  remote 
from  the  mother  country,  as  that  of  America.     Supposing  even 

VOL.  11.  11 


,.22  CHAPTER   IX. 

that  ihey  could  have  succeeded,  the  spirit  and  nature  of  the 
English  government  would  never  have  permitted  them  to  main- 
tain their  conquests  by  force.  The  colonies^  however,  far  from 
being  intimida,ted  by  these  acts,  warmly  espoused  the  causn  of 
the  province  which  had  been  singled  out  for  punishmeni. 

A  general  Congress,  composed  of  the  representatives  of  all  the 
colonies,  was  opened  at  Philadelphia  (Sept.  5,  1774.)  They 
declared  the  acts  of  the  British  Parliament  against  Massachu- 
setts, to  be  unjust,  oppressive,  and  unconstitutional.  They 
agreed  never  more  to  import  articles  of  commerce  from  Great 
Britain  ;  and  to  present  an  address  to  the  King,  and  a  petition 
to  the  House  of  Commons,  for  the  redress  of  those  grievances  of 
which  the  colonies  had  to  complam.  This  latter  step  having 
produced  no  effect,  and  the  Parliament  having  still  persisted  in 
their  rigorous  measures,  hostilities  commenced  in  the  month  of 
April  1775.  The  American  Congress  then  conferred  the  com- 
mand of  their  army  on  George  Washington,  a  rich  planter  in 
Virginia,  who  had  acquired  considerable  military  reputation  by 
his  success  in  opposing  the  French  in  Canada ;  and  at  the  same 
time,  to  raise  the  immediate  supplies  of  which  the  colonies  stood 
in  need,  the  Congress  agreed  to  issue  paper  money,  sufficient  to 
meet  the  unavoidable  expenses  of  the  war.  A  declaration,  pub- 
lished in  the  month  of  July,  1775,  explained  the  reasons  which 
had  compelled  the  Americans  to  take  up  arms ;  and  announced 
their  intention  not  to  separate  from  Great  Britain,  nor  adopt  a 
system  of  absolute  independence.  But  as  the  British  Ministry 
had  made  extraordinary  efforts  for  the  campaign  of  1776,  and 
!aken  a  body  of  German  troops  into  their  pay,  the  Americans 
thought  proper  to  break  off  all  alliance  with  England,  that  they 
night  have  recourse  in  their  turn  to  the  protection  of  foreigners. 

The  independence  of  the  Colonies  was  therefore  formally  de- 
clared by  an  Act  of  Congress  (July  4,  1776.)  They  then  drew 
up  articles  of  confederation  and  perpetual  union  among  the  States 
of  America,  to  the  number  of  thirteen  provinces,  under  the  title 
of  the  United  States  of  America.  In  virtue  of  this  union,  each 
of  the  Slates  remained  master  of  its  own  legislative  and  inter- 
nal administration,  while  the  Congress,  which  was  composed  of 
deputies  from  all  the  colonies,  had  the  power  of  regulating  all 
political  affairs ;  that  is  to  say,  every  thing  concerning  war  or 
peace,  alliances,  money  matli^rs,  weights  and  measures,  posts, 
&c. ;  as  well  as  the  settlement  of  any  differences  which  might 
arise  between  two  or  more  of  the  confederate  States.  The  first 
favourable  action  for  the  Americans,  in  their  war  against  Eng- 
land, was  that  at  Trenton  on  the  Delav/are,  (Dec.  25,  1776,) 
where  General  Washington  surprised  a  body  of  Hessians  and 


PERIOD  viu.     A   D.  1713—1789.  123 

English,  and  made  them  prisoners.  But  the  event  which  in 
some  degree  set  the  seal  to  the  independence  of  America,  was 
the  important  check  which  General  Burgoyne  met  with  near 
Saratoga.  Having  advanced  from  Canada  to  support  the  opera- 
tions of  General  Howe,  who  was  marching  on  Philadelphia,  he 
was  compelled  by  the  American  troops  under  General  Gates  to 
lay  down  his  arms,  by  a  capitulation  which  was  signed  in  the 
camp  at  Saratoga  (Oct.  16,  1777.)  The  news  of  this  disaster 
was  no  sooner  received  in  Europe,  than  France,  who,  during 
the  time  that  England  was  occupied  with  the  disturbances  in 
America,  had  put  her  marine  on  a  respectable  footing,  took  the 
resolution  of  acknowledging  the  New  Republic,  and  entered  into 
d  formal  alliance  with  it.  Treaties  of  friendship,  alliance,  and 
commerce,  were  concluded  at  Paris  between  them  and  the  Uni- 
ted States  of  America  (Feb.  6,  1778.)  France  demanded  as  a 
primary  condition,  that  the  United  States  should  not  lay  down 
their  arms,  until  England  had  acknowledged  their  independence. 
"The  notification  which  the  Court  of  France  made  to  that  of  Lon- 
don of  this  treaty  with  the  United  States,  became  the  signal  of 
war  between  these  two  nations. 

This  war  which  France  had  undertaken  against  England  for 
the  free  navigation  of  the  seas,  was  the  first  which  did  not  in- 
volve the  continent  of  Europe,  as  it  was  confined  entirely  to 
maritime  operations.  The  European  powers,  far  from  thwart- 
ing France  in  this  enterprise,  applauded  her  success ;  and  while 
Great  Britain  depended  on  her  own  strength,  and  had  not  a  sin- 
gle ally  on  the  Continent,  France  contrived  to  interest  Spain 
and  Holland  in  her  cause. 

Spain,  after  having  for  some  time  held  the  rank  of  a  media- 
ting power,  entered  into  the  war  in  fulfilment  of  those  engage 
ments  which  she  had  contracted,  by  the  Family  Compact ;  an(V 
as  respected  Holland,  England  had  determined  to  break  with 
her.  The  British  ministry  were  ofTended  at  that  Republic,  which, 
instead  of  granting  England  the  supplies  that  she  was  entitled 
to  claim  in  virtue  of  former  treaties,  had  lent  itself  an  accomplice 
to  the  interests  of  her  enemies.  The  Dutch,  on  their  side,  com- 
plained of  the  multiplied  vexations  with  which  they  were  inces- 
santly harassed  by  the  British  privateers.  They  had  sought 
to  protect  themselves  against  these,  under  the  shield  of  that 
armed  neutrality  which  the  Empress  of  Russia  had  just  negoti- 
ated for  protecting  the  commerce  of  neutral  States  ;  and  it  was 
in  order  to  prevent  their  accession  to  that  neutrality,  that  Eng- 
land made  such  haste  to  declare  war  against  the  Republic  (Dec. 
20,  1780.) 

Without  entering  here  into  the  details  of  that  wax,  the  prin- 


IJW  CHAPTER  li. 

cipal  scene  of  which  was  in  America,  though  it  extended  lo 
Africa  and  the  Indies,  we  shall  conHne  ourselves  to  a  few  gen- 
eral observations. 

When  hostii;ties  commenced  between  France  and  England, 
the  latter  had  a  very  great  superiority  in  maritime  strength.  She 
had  armies  at  the  two  extremities  of  the  globe.  The  number  of 
her  vessels  was  prodigious.  Her  arsenals  were  overloaded  with 
stores.  Her  dock-yards  were  in  the  greatest  activity  ;  but  after 
France  and  Spain  had  united  their  naval  force,  it  was  no  longer 
possible  for  Great  Britain,  obliged  as  she  was  to  divide  her 
strength,  to  defend  her  distant  possessions  against  the  numerous 
attacks  of  the  French  and  their  allies.  Not  fewer  than  twenty- 
one  engagements  took  place  between  the  belligerent  powers  ;  in 
all  of  which  England,  from  the  experience  of  her  Admirals,  and 
the  ability  of  her  naval  officers,  did  not  lose  a  single  ship  of  the 
line.  The  first  naval  action  was  fought  near  Ushant  (July  27, 
1778,)  between  D'Orvilliers  and  Admiral  Keppel.  This  action, 
the  glory  of  which  was  claimed  equally  by  both  nations,  was  a*s 
indecisive  as  most  of  those  which  followed  it.  The  only  decisive 
actior,  properly  speaking,  was  that  which  Admiral  Rodney  fought 
with  Count  de  Grasse  (April  12,  1782,)  between  the  islands  of 
Dominica  and  Saintes.  The  English  Admiral  having  broken 
the  French  line,  succeeded  in  taking  five  ships  of  the  line,  inclu- 
ding the  Admiral's,  and  had  the  honour  to  carry  him  prisoner 
to  London. 

At  the  beginning  of  the  war,  the  English  stripped  the  French 
of  their  possessions  in  the  East  Indies,  such  as  Pondicherry, 
Chandernagore,  and  Mahe.  They  took  from  them  the  islands 
of  St.  Peter  and  Miquelon,  as  well  as  that  of  St.  Lucia,  and 
Gorea  on  the  coast  of  Africa.  The  French  afterwards  repaid 
themselves  for  these  losses,  by  conquering  the  islands  of  Domin- 
ica, St.  Vincent,  Grenada,  Tobago,  St.  Christophers,  Nevis  and 
Monteserrat.  All  the  forts  and  establishments  of  the  English 
on  the  Senegal  in  Africa,-  as  well  as  Gondelore  in  the  East  In- 
dies, fell  into  their  possession. 

The  Spaniards  made  themselves  masters  of  the  fortfi  which 
the  English  occupied  on  the  Mississippi.  They  took  fort  Mo- 
bile or  Conde,  in  ancient  French  Louisiana,  and  subdued  the 
whole  of  Western  Florida,  with  the  town  of  Pensacola.  In 
Europe  they  recovered,  with  the  assistance  of  the  French,  the 
island  of  Minorca,  with  port  Mahon  and  fort  St.  Philip  ;  but  the 
combined  forces  of  the  two  nations  failed  in  their  enterprise 
against  Gibraltar.  This  place,  which  was  bravely  defended  by 
General  Elliot,  was  twice  relieved  with  supplies  by  the  English 
fleet — first  by  Admiral  Rodney  (1780,)  and  afterwards  by  Lord 


PERIOD  VIII.     A.  D.  1713 — 1789.  12B 

Howe  (1782.)  The  floating  batteries  invented  by  M.  D'Arqoii, 
which  were  directed  against  the  garrison,  were  destroyed  by  thn 
red-hot  bullsts  which  the  English  commander  showered  upon 
them  in  great  profusion.  It  was  chiefly  this  obstinate  determi- 
nation of  the  Spaniards  to  recover  the  rock  of  Gibraltar,  that  for 
a  long  time  deprived  France  and  Spain  of  the  advantages  which 
ought  to  have  accrued  to  them  from  the  combination  of  their 
naval  strength  against  Great  Britain.  As  for  the  Dutch,  they 
experienced  heavy  losses  in  this  war ;  their  islands  of  St.  Eu- 
statia,  Saba,  and  St.  Martin  in  the  Antilles,  were  seized  by  the 
English,  who  carried  off  immense  booty.  Besides  their  esta- 
blishments of  Demarara  and  Essequibo  in  Guiana,  those  which 
the}-  had  on  the  Malabar  and  Coromandel  coasts,  especially  Ne- 
gapatam  and  Trincomalee,  on  the  coasts  of  Ceylon,  were  reduced 
in  succession.  The  French  succeeded,  however,  in  reconquer- 
ing the  Dutch  Antilles,  and  the  fortress  of  Trincomalee. 

In  North  America,  the  success  of  the  war  was  for  a  long  time 
equally  balanced  between  the  English  and  the  Americans.  At 
length  Lord  Cornwallis,  after  having  conquered  the  two  Caroliuas, 
advanced  into  Virginia.  He  took  York  Town  and  Gloucester  ; 
but  having  penetrated  into  the  interior  of  that  province.  Generals 
Washington,  Rochambaud,  and  La  Fayette,  turned  their  forces 
against  him,  and  were  supporred  in  this  attack  by  a  French  fleet, 
which  the  Count  de  Grasse  had  brought  to  their  aid.  Lord 
Cornwallis,  surrounded  on  all  sides,  and  shut  up  in  York  Town, 
was  obliged  to  capitulate  (Oct.  19,  1781,)  and  surrendered  him- 
self and  his  Avhole  army  prisoners  of  war.  This  event  decided 
the  fate  of  America.  The  news  of  it  no  sooner  arrived  in 
England,  than  a  change  took  place  in  the  British  ministry. 
Lord  North  and  his  colleagues  resigned,  and  were  replaced 
by  the  members  of  the  opposite  party.  The  new  ministry 
attempted  to  negotiate  a  special  peace,  either  with  the  Ameri 
cans  or  with  the  Dutch  ;  but  their  efforts  having  proved  unsue 
cessful,  they  adopted  the  alternative  of  recognising  the  inde 
pendence  of  America,  and  then  entered  into  a  negotiation  with 
France.  A  conference  was  opened  at  Paris,  under  the  media- 
tion of  Joseph  II.  and  the  Empress  of  Russia.  It  continued  from 
the  month  of  October  1782,  till  September  1783,  when  definitive 
treaties  of  peace  were  signed  at  Paris  and  Versailles  between 
Great  Britain,  France,  Spain,  and  the  United  States  of  America. 
The  conclusion  of  the  treaty  between  England  and  Holland  did 
not  take  place  till  the  20th  May  1784. 

In  virtue  of  these  treaties,  the  independence  of  the  Thirteen 
United  States  of  America  was  acknowledged  by  England  ;  and 
the  boundaries  of  the  respective  possessions  of  the  two  powers 

VOL.  TI.  11"^ 


126  CHAPTEH  IX. 

were  regulated  over  the  whole  extent  of  North  America.  A 
territory  of  vast  extent  was  assigned  to  the  United  States,  who 
also  obtained  the  right  of  fishing  on  ihe  banks  of  Newfoundland, 
and  in  all  other  places  where  fishing  had  till  then  been  practised. 

The  French  fisheries  at  Newfoundland,  were  settled  in  a  man- 
ner more  advantageous  than  by  the  former  treaties.  The  Islands 
of  St.  Peter  and  Miquelon  were  ceded  with  full  privileges  to 
France.  In  the  Antilles,  France  retained  St.  Lucia  and  Toba- 
go, restoring  to  England  Grenada  and  the  Grenadines,  St.  Vin- 
cent, Dominica,  St.  Christopher,  Nevis,  and  Montserrat.  In 
Africa,  the  forts  and  settlements  on  the  Senegal  remained  in 
the  possession  of  France,  and  the  island  of  Gorea  was  restored 
to  her.  In  the  East  Indies,  all  the  French  settlements  such  as 
Chandernagore,  Fondicherry,  and  Mahe,  were  restored,  and  Eng- 
land engaged  to  make  some  additions  to  Fondicherry.  The 
clauses  in  the  former  treaties  relative  to  Dunkirk  were  abolished. 
The  island  of  Minorca  in  the  Mediterranean,  and  the  whole  of 
Florida  in  America,  were  ceded  to  Spain,  who  restored  to  Eng- 
land the  islands  of  Providence  and  Bahama;  and  moreover 
granted  the  English  the  liberty  of  cutting  logwood  or  dyewood 
in  certain  places  on  the  Bay  of  Honduras.  Finally,  Holland 
ceded  Negapatam  to  England,  and  granted  to  British  subjects  a 
free  trade  in  the  Indian  Seas,  where  the  Dutch  had  till  that  time 
maintained  an  exclusive  commerce  and  navigation. 

Such  is  an  outline  of  the  treaties  of  Paris  and  Versailles, 
which  terminated  the  American  war.  France  thereby  main- 
tained the  balance  of  maritime  power  against  England,  whose 
vast  naval  superiority  had  alarmed  all  the  commercial  States  of 
Europe.  [It  is  true  that  this  advantage  was  of  short  duration, 
as  the  English  recovered  their  superiority,  and  during  the  French 
Revolution,  carried  it  to  a  pitch  which  it  had  never  before  reach- 
ed ;  besides,  their  commerce  suffered  no  check  by  the  loss  of 
their  extensiv^e  colonies.  The  growing  industry  of  the  new  Re- 
public had  more  need  than  ever  to  be  supported  by  all  the  capi- 
tal and  credit  which  the  merchants  could  find  in  the  mother 
country.]  France  acquired  the  glory  of  having  contributed,  by 
her  efforts,  to  establish  the  new  Republic  of  the  United  States, 
Avhich,by  the  vast  extent  of  its  territory,  the  progressive  increase 
of  its  population,  its  industry,  and  its  commerce,  must  exercise, 
in  course  of  time,  a  prodigious  influence  on  the  destinies  of 
Europe. 

One  memorable  event,  which  has  some  reference  to  the  Amer- 
ican war,  was  the  confederacy  of  the  Northern  powers,  under  the 
title  of  the  Armed  Neutrality.  That  war,  which  was  purely 
maritime,  having  given  an  astonishing  alacrity  to  the  commerce 


PERIOD  vm.     A.  D.  1713—1789.  327 

of  the  North,  hy  the  demand  which  the  belligerent  powers  made 
for  wood  for  ship  building  and  naval  stores  of  all  kinds,  England, 
iij  order  to  prevent  the  French  and  Spaniards  from  procuring 
these  commodities  in  the  North,  took  advantage  of  her  maritime 
superiority,  by  seizing,  without  distinction,  all  merchant  vessels 
under  a  neutral  flag ;  and  confiscating  all  articles  found  on 
board,  belonging  te  the  subjects  of  hostiie  countries.  The  Em." 
press  of  Russia,  wishing  to  put  a  stop  to  these  depredations,  re- 
solved to  protect  by  force  of  arms,  the  commercial  interests  of  her 
subjects.  By  a  manifesto  which  she  addressed  to  France  and 
England  (February  1780,)  she  informed  these  powers,  that  it 
^vas  her  intention  to  maintain  free  intercourse  for  ail  effects 
v/hich  might  belong  to  the  subjects  of  those  nations  at  war  ;  ex- 
cepting only  genuine  warlike  stores,  such  as  powder,  balls,  and 
cannon,  and  in  general,  whatever  might  be  reputed  contraband 
goods ;  in  virtue  of  the  10th  and  11th  articles  of  her  commercial 
treaty  with  Great  Britain  (1766.)  She  did  not  rest  satisfied 
with  making  this  declaration  herself.  She  engaged  Sweden 
and  Denmark  to  publish  similar  ones  ;  and  entered  into  a  con^- 
tract  with  those  powers,  for  the  purpose  of  protecting  the  navi- 
gation of  their  subjects  by  means  ef  convoys,  and  for  rendering 
each  other  mutual  assistance  in  case  of  any  insult  offered  to 
•I'leir  merchantmen.  The  Court  of  Copenhagen  declared  more 
especially  (Aug.  10,  1780,)  that  the  Baltic,  by  its  local  situation, 
being  a  shut  sea,  no  ships  of  war  belonging  to  the  belligerents 
couk^  be  admitted  there,  or  allowed  to  commit  hostilities  against 
any  one  whomsoeFer.  Several  of  the  Continental  powers,  such 
as  the  King  of  Pru^^sia,  the  Emperor  Joseph  II.,  the  Queen  of 
Portugal,  and  the  King  of  the  Two  Sicilies,  joined  the  Armed 
Neutrality,  on  the  principles  established  in  the  declaration  of 
the  Empress  of  Russia.  France  and  Spain  applauded  these 
measures,  and  the  principles  which  the  Empress  had  thus  sanc- 
tioned. England  dissembled,  pretending  to  refer  to  treaties, 
and  to  wait  a  more  favourable  opportunity  for  explanation.  But 
in  order  to  prevent  the  Dutch  from  taking  shelter  under  the 
armed  neutrality,  she  declared  war  against  that  Republic,  even 
before  the  act  of  her  accession  to  these  treaties  had  been  ratified 
by  the  powers  of  the  North. 

New  disputes  had  arisen  between  the  Russians  and  the  Turks 
after  the  peace  of  Kainargi.  The  haughtiness  of  the  Forte  was 
unwilling  to  admit  the  independence  of  the  Tartars,  which  was 
sanctioned  by  that  peace.  He  was  indignant  to  see  the  Russians 
parading  their  flag  even  under  the  walls  of  Constantinople  ;  and 
moreover,  he  tried  every  stratagem  to  elude  the  execution  of 
those  articles  in  the  treaty  which  did  not  meet  with  his  approba 


128  CHAPTER    VS. 

tion.  Russia,  on  her  part,  who  regarded  the  independence  of 
the  Crimea  as  a  step  towards  the  execution  of  her  ambitious  pro- 
jects, expelled  the  Khan  Dovvlat  Gueray,  who  was  favourably 
inclined  towards  the  Porte,  and  put  Sahin  Gueray  in  hiS  place, 
who  was  devoted  to  the  interests  of  Russia.  This  latter  having 
been  dispossessed  by  Selim  Gueray,  with  the  assistance  of  the 
Porte,  the  Empress  marched  a  body  of  troops  into  the  Crimea^ 
under  the  command  of  Suwarow  (1778,)  and  restored  her  pro- 
tege to  the  throne  by  force  of  arms. 

The  Turks  made  great  preparations  for  war,  and  a  new  rup- 
ture between  the  two  empires  was  expected,  when,  by  the  inter- 
position of  M.  de  St.  Priest,  the  French  ambassador  to  the  Turk- 
ish Court,  the  Divan  consented  to  an  accommodation  which  was 
concluded  at  Constantinople  (March  21,  1779,)  under  the  name 
of  the  Explicative  Convention.  The  independence  of  the  Cri- 
mea, and  the  sovereignty  of  Sahin  Gueray,  were  thereby  acknow- 
ledged, and  confirmed  anew.  Russia  and  the  Porte  engaged  to 
withdraw  their  troops  from  that  peninsula,  as  well  as  from  the 
island  of  Taman.  The  Porte  promised  especially  never  to  al- 
lege any  pretexts  of  spiritual  alliance,  for  interfering  with  the 
civil  or  political  power  of  the  Khans.  The  free  intercourse  be- 
tween the  Black  Sea  and  the  White  Sea,  was  secured  in  the  most 
express  manner  to  all  Russian  vessels  that  were  of  the  form,  size, 
and  capacity,  of  the  ships  of  other  nations  who  carried  on  trade 
in  the  ports  of  Turkey. 

This  convention  did  not  restore  any  permanent  good  under- 
standing between  the  two  Empires  ;  new  troubles  were  not  long 
in  springing  up  again  in  the  Crimea.  The  Khan  Sahin  Gueray 
was  once  more  ex{)elled  by  the  party  adhering  to  the  Turks 
(1782.)  A  Russian  army  immediately  entered  that  peninsula^ 
and  restored  the  fugitive  Khan  ;  while  a  Russian  fleet  sailing 
from  the  port  of  AzofT,  cut  off  the  malecontents  from  all  commu- 
nication with  Constantinople.  Under  these  circumstances,  the 
Empress  Catherine  II.  thought  the  moment  had  arrived  for  pla- 
cing the  Crimea  among  the  number  of  her  own  provinces.  She 
caused  her  troops  to  occupy  that  peninsula,  as  well  as  the  whole 
of  Cuban  ;  and  expelled  the  Turks  from  Taman,  of  which  they 
had  made  themselves  masters,  with  the  view  of  opening  a  com- 
munication with  the  Tartars.  Finally,  she  explained,  in  a  man- 
ifesto, the  motives  which  induced  her  to  unite  the  Crimea  to  her 
Empire,  together  with  the  isle  of  Taman,  and  the  Cuban,  and 
required  Sahin  Gueray  formally  to  resign  the  sovereignty  which 
he  had  enjoyed  for  so  short  a  time  (June  28,  1783.) 

That  event  was  a  terrible  blow  to  the  Ottoman  Porte.  The 
inhabitants  of  Constantinople  loudly  demanded  war ;  but  the 


ffcaioD  vni.     A.  D.  1713 — 1789.  129 

Divan,  who  were  sensible  of  their  weakness,  used  every  endea- 
vour to  avoid  it.  The  preparations  of  the  Russians  both  by  sea 
and  land,  were  immense  ;  and  there  subsisted  a  co-operation  and 
a  perfect  intimacy  between  the  Courts  of  Vienna  and  St.  Peters- 
burg. England  tried  in  vain  to  engage  the  Turks  to  take  up 
arms,  but  they  were  withheld  by  France  and  Austria.  Instead 
of  fighting,  they  Were  resolved  to  negotiate  ;  and  a  new  treatv 
was  signed  at  Constantinople  (Jan.  8,  1784.)  The  sovereignty 
of  the  Crimea,  the  island  of  Taman,  and  all  the  part  of  Cuban 
which  lay  on  the  right  bank  of  the  river  of  that  name,  and  form- 
ed, as  it  were,  a  frontier  between  the  tvv^o  Empires,  were  aban- 
doned to  Russia.  The  fortress  of  Oczakoff,  to  which  the  Tar- 
tars of  the  Crimea  had  some  claims,  vv^as  ceded  to  the  Porte, 
with  its  whole  territory.  Thus  ended  the  dominion  of  the  Tar- 
tars in  the  Crimea,  once  so  terrible  to  Russia.  The  Empress 
formed  the  whole  of  that  vast  country  into  two  new  govern- 
ments, Taurida  and  the  Caucasu-s. 

There  had  existed  for  a  long  time  certain  disputes  between 
the  Dutch  and  the  government  of  the  Austrian  Netherlands,  as 
to  the  execution  of  the  Barrier  Treaty  (1715,)  and  that  of  the 
Hague  (1718.)  They  had  neglected  to  define  precisely  the 
limits  of  Dutch  Flanders,  which  these  treaties  had  pointed  out 
rather  than  determined  ;  and  for  along  time  the  Imperial  Court 
had  ceased  to  pay  the  Dutch  the  subsidies  vvhich  the  Barrier 
Treaty  had  stipulated  in  their  favour.  That  court  would  not 
consent  to  agree  to  a  definitive  settlement  of  these  limits,  or  the 
payment  of  the  subsidies,  until  England  and  Holland  should  co 
operate  with  her  in  repairing  the  Barrier  towns,  whose  fortifica- 
tions had  been  ruined  during  the  war  of  the  Austrian  Succes- 
sion. She  demanded,  also,  that  these  powers  should  unite  fox 
■concluding  a  treaty  of  commerce,  and  a  tariff  favourable  for  the 
Low  Countries,  as  they  had  engaged  to  do  by  former  treaties. 
At  length  the  Emperor  Joseph  II.  thought  he  might  avail  him- 
self of  the  war  which  had  arisen  between  England  and  Holland, 
to  free  the  Austrian  Netherlands  entirely  from  the  claims  Avhich 
the  Barrier  Treaty  had  imposed  on  them.  The  order  for  de- 
molishing all  the  fortified  places  in  the  Netherlands  compre- 
hended the  Barrier  towns  ;  and  the  Dutch  were  summoned  to 
withdraw  their  troops  from  them.  These  republicarrs,  not  be- 
ing able  to  solicit  the  protection  of  England,  with  which  they 
were  at  war,  found  themselves  obliged  to  comply  with  the  sum- 
mons of  the  Emperor.  Their  troops  then  evacuted  all  the  Bar- 
rier towns  in  succession. 

This  compliance  on  the  part  of  the  Dutch,  encouraged  the 
Emperor  to  extend  his  pretensions  still  farther.     Not  conteni 


130  CHAPTER  IX. 

with  annulling  the  treaties  of  1715 — 18,  he  required  that  the 
boundaries  of  Flanders  should  be  re-established  on  the  footing 
of  the  contract  of  1664,  between  Spain  and  the  States-General ; 
and  instead  of  making  his  new  demand  a  subject  of  negotiation, 
he  took  possession  of  the  forts,  as  well  as  of  the  towns  and  dis- 
tricts included  ^vithin  the  limits  which  had  been  fixed  by  this 
latter  agreement.  The  Dutch  having  addressed  their  com- 
plaints to  the  Court  of  Vienna  against  these  violent  proceedings^ 
the  Emperor  consented  to  open  a  conference  at  Brussels  (1784,) 
for  bringing  all  these  disputes  to  an  amicable  termination.  He 
declared,  at  the  opening  of  the  meeting,  that  he  would  desist  from 
all  the  claims  which  he  had  against  the  Republic,  provided  they 
would  grant  the  Belgic  provinces  the  free  passage  and  naviga- 
tion of  the  Scheldt ;  with  the  privilege  of  direct  commerce  with 
India,  frorn  all  the  ports  in  the  Netherlands.  But  while  proposing 
this  state  of  things  as  the  subject  of  negotiation,  he  announced, 
that  from  that  moment  he  was  firmly  resolved  to  consider  the 
Scheldt  as  free  ;  and  that  the  least  opposition,  on  the  part  of  the 
States-General,  would  be,  in  his  eyes,  as  the  signal  of  hostili- 
ties, and  a  declaration  of  war.  The  Dutch,  without  being  in- 
timidated by  these  threats,  declared  the  demand  of  the  Emperor 
to  be  contrary  to  their  treaties,  and  subversive  of  the  safety 
and  prosperity  of  their  Republic.  Vice- Admiral  Reynst  was 
ordered  to  station  himself,  with  a  squadron,  at  the  mouth  of  the 
Scheldt,  and  to  prevent  all  Imperial  or  Flemish  ships  from  pass- 
ing. Tv/o  merchantmen  having  attempted  to  force  the  passage, 
the  Dutch  gave  them  a  broadside,  and  obliged  them  to  strike. 

The  Emperor  then  regarded  the  war  as  declared,  and  broke 
off  the  conference  at  Brussels  ;  he  had,  however,  made  no  pre- 
parations ;  and  the  Low  Countries  were  entirely  divested  of  their 
troops,  magazines,  and  warlike  stores-  The  prince  had  flatter- 
ed himself,  that  the  Court  of  France  would  espouse  his  quarrel, 
and  that  he  would  obtain  from  them  the  supplies  stipulated  by 
the  treaty  of  Versailles.  But  France,  who  was  then  negotiating 
a  treaty  of  alliance  with  the  Republic,  easily  foresaw,  that  if  she 
abandoned  them  at  that  particular  time,  they  would  be  obliged 
to  throw  themselves  into  the  arms  of  England.  M.  de  Maille- 
bois  then  got  orders  to  pass  to  Holland,  while  France  set  on  foot 
two  armie*s  of  observation,  one  in  Flanders,  and  the  other  on  the 
Rhine.  The  King  wrote  to  the  Emperor  very  pressing  letters, 
wishing  him  to  adopt  pacific  measures. 

These  proceedings  and  the  numerous  difficulties  which  the 
war  of  the  Netherlands  presented  to  the  Emperor,  induced  him 
to  accept  the  mediation  of  the  Court  of  Fjance  ;  a  negotiation 
on  this  subject  was  entered  into  at  Versailles.     The  Emperor 


PERIOD  vm.     A.  D.  1713 — 1789.  131 

there  persisted  at  first  in  maintaining  the  liberty  of  the  Scheldt, 
but  afterwards  became  less  rigid  on  this  point.  He  was  con- 
tent to  enforce  his  other  claims.  This  negotiation  was  as  tedi- 
ous as  it  was  intricate.  It  occupied  the  French  ministry  dur- 
ing the  greater  part  of  the  year  1785.  The  Emperor  insisted 
much  on  the  cession  of  Maestricht,  and  the  territory  of  Outre- 
Meuse.  From  this  demand  he  would  not  recede,  except  on  the 
payment  of  a  large  sum  of  money  by  way  of  indemnity,  and 
another  in  reparation  of  the  damage  which  the  inundation  of 
Flanders,  ordered  by  the  States-General,  had  occasioned  to  his 
Austrian  subjects.  By  the  peace  which  was  signed  at  Fontain- 
bleau,  the  treaty  of  Munster  (1648)  was  renewed;  but  nothing 
was  said  of  the  Barrier  treaty,  nor  of  that  of  Vienna  (1731.) 
They  agreed  on  shutting  the  Scheldt  from  Saftingen,  as  far  as 
the  sea ;  as  well  as  the  Canals  of  Saas,  Swin,  and  other  com- 
munications with  the  sea  in  the  neighbourhood.  The  States- 
General  engaged  to  pay  the  Emperor,  in  lieu  of  his  claims  on 
Maestricht  and  the  Outre-Meuse,  the  sum  of  9,500,000  Dutch 
florins  ;  and  another  of  500,000  florins  for  repairing  the  damages 
done  by  the  inundations.  That  Prince  got  ample  satisfaction 
on  the  subject  of  most  of  his  other  claims  ;  and  France  under- 
took to  guarantee  the  treaty.  Immediately  after  it  was  signed, 
they  renewed  the  negotiation  respecting  the  treaty  of  alliance 
projected  between  France  and  the  Republic.  This  treaty  was 
also  signed  at  Fontainbleau  (Nov.  10,  1785)  two  days  after  the 
treaty  of  peace. 

Various  intestine  disturbances  at  that  time  agitated  the  Repub- 
lic of  the  United  Provinces.  The  animosity  of  the  Republican 
party  against  the  Stadtholder  and  his  partisans,  had  been  re- 
7ived  more  keenly  than  ever,  on  account  of  the  war  in  Ame- 
rica between  France  and  England.  The  Republicans  reproach- 
ed the  Stadtholder  for  his  devotedness  to  the  interests  of  Eng 
land,  which  had  made  him  neglect  their  marine,  and  fail  in  the 
protection  which  he  owed  the  Dutch  commerce,  in  his  capacity 
of  Admiral-General  of  the  forces  of  the  Republic.  The  dif- 
ferent magistrates  of  the  municipal  towns,  in  order  to  discredit 
the  Stadtholder  in  the  opinion  of  the  public,  encouraged  peri- 
odical writers  to  inveigh  against  the  person  of  William  V.  and 
nis  administration.  They  blamed  his  counsellors,  and  especially 
Louis  Duke  of  Brunswick,  who,  as  governor  to  the  Stadtholder 
during  his  minority,  had  had  the  principal  direction  of  affairs, 
and  who  still  continued  to  aid  him  with  his  councils. 

The  city  of  Amsterdam,  which  had  always  been  distinguish- 
ed for  its  opposition  to  the  Stadtholder,  was  the  first  that  de- 
manded the  removal  of  the  Duke,  whom  they  blamed  as  the 


I3B  CHAPTER  IX. 

cause  of  the  langnid  state  of  their  maritime  power.  That 
prince  was  compelled  to  resign,  (1784,)  and  even  to  withdraw 
from  the  territories  of  the  Republic.  The  retirement  of  the  Duke 
emboldened  the  opponents  of  the  Stadtholder,  who  soon  went  be- 
yond all  bounds.  That  party,  purely  aristocratic  in  its  origin,  had 
been  afterwards  reinforced  by  a  multitude  of  democrats,  who, 
not  contented  with  humbling  the  Stadtholder,  attacked  even 
the  power  of  the  magistrates  ;  and  tried  to  change  the  constitu- 
tion, by  rendering  the  government  more  popular  and  democra'".... 
In  the  principal  towns,  associations  were  formed  under  the 
name  of  Free  Bodies,  for  exercising  the  citizens  in  the  manage- 
ment of  arms.  The  party  opposed  to  the  Stadtholder  took  the 
name  of  Patriots.  They  were  secretly  supported  by  France, 
who  wished  to  employ  them  as  an  instrument  for  destroying  the 
influence  of  England,  and  attaching  the  Republic  to  her  own 
interests.  A  popular  insurrection,  which  happened  at  the  Hague 
(1785,)  furnished  the  States  of  Holland  with  a  pretext  for  re- 
moving the  Stadtholder  from  the  command  of  that  place,  which 
was  intrusted  to  a  Council.  This  blow,  struck  at  a  prerogative 
which  was  regarded  as  inherent  in  the  Stadtholdership,  induced 
the  Prince  of  Orange  to  quit  the  Hague,  and  fix  his  residence 
in  the  province  of  Gueiders,  the  States  which  were  most  par- 
ticularly devoted  to  him.  An  attack  which  the  prince  made 
against  the  towns  of  Elburg  and  Hattem,  for  refusing  to  ex- 
ecute the  orders  which  he  had  intimated  to  them  in  the  name 
of  the  States  of  Gueiders,  exasperated  the  minds  of  the  Dutch. 
It  added  to  the  strength  of  the  Patriotic  party,  and  encouraged 
the  States  of  Holland  to  make  a  renewed  atta.ck  on  the  Stad- 
tholdership ;  and  even  to  go  so  far  as  to  suspend  the  prmce  from 
the  functions  of  Captain-General  of  that  province. 

The  Court  of  Berlin  had  taken  measures,  both  with  the 
States-General  and  the  province  of  Holland,  to  facilitate  an  ac- 
commodation between  the  two  parties.  Frederic  William  II. 
who  succeeded  his  uncle  Frederic  the  Great,  (1786,)  sent  to  the 
Hague,  with  this  view,  the  Count  de  Gortz,  his  minister  of  state  ; 
while  M.  Gerard  de  Rayneval  was  ordered  to  repair  thither  on 
the  part  of  France.  A  negotiation  was  opened  between  these 
two  ministers  and  the  principal  leaders  of  the  Patriotic  party, 
but  without  effect.  Their  animosities  rather  increased,  and  the 
Patriots  broke  out  into  every  kind  of  violence.  They  dismis- 
sed the  magistrates  of  the  chief  towns  by  force,  and  replaced 
them  by  their  own  adherents  ;  a  step  which  obliged  the  aristo- 
crats to  coalesce  with  the  Stadtholder's  party,  in  order  to  with- 
stand the  fury  of  the  repubHcans.  A  civil  war  seemed  to  all 
appearance  inevitable.     In  this  state  of  matters,  the  Princess  of 


PERIOD  vin.     A.  i>.  1713 — 1789.  133 

Orange  took  the  resolution  of  repairing  in  person  to  the  Hague, 
with  the  design,  as  she  alleged,  of  endeavouring  to  restore 
peace.  She  was  arrested  on  her  route  by  a  detachment  of  the 
republican  corps  of  Gouda  (June  2S,  1787,)  and  conducted  to 
Schoenhoven,  whence  she  was  obliged  to  return  to  Nimeguen, 
without  being  able  to  accomplish  the  object  of  her  journey. 

The  King  of  Prussia  demanded  satisfaction  for  this  outrage 
offered  to  his  sister.  The  States  of  Holland,  not  feeling  dis- 
posed to  give  it  in  the  terms  which  the  King  demanded,  he  sent 
a  body  of  20,000  men  to  Holland,  under  the  command  of  the 
Duke  of  Brunswick,  who,  in  the  space  of  a  month,  made  him- 
self master  of  the  whole  country,  and  even  obliged  the  city  of 
Amsterdam  to  submit.  All  the  former  resolutions  which  had 
been  taken  for  limiting  the  power  of  the  Stadth  older,  were  then 
annulled,  and  the  prince  .was  re-established  in  the  plenitude  of 
his  rights. 

Althoug'h  the  subsistence  of  the  alliance  between  France  and 
the  Republic  was  obviously  connected  with  the  cause  of  the 
Patriots,  the  former  took  no  steps  to  support  that  party,  or  to 
oppose  the  invasion  of  the  Prussians.  France  had  even  the 
weakness  to  negotiate  with  the  Court  of  London,  for  disarming 
their  respective  troops  ;  declaring,  that  she  entertained  no  hos- 
tile intentions  relative  to  what  had  passed  in  Holland.  The  po- 
litics of  the  States-General  from  that  time,  underwent  a  com- 
plete revolution.  Renouncing  their  alliance  with  France,  they 
embraced  that  of  Prussia  and  Great  Britain.  By  the  treaties 
which  were  signed  at  Berlin  and  the  Hague  (April  15,  1788,) 
these  two  powers  undertook  to  guarantee  the  resolutions  of 
1747  and  1748,  which  made  the  Stadtholdership  hereditary 
in  the  House  of  Orange.  France  thus  shamefully  lost  the 
fruits  of  all  the  measures  which  she  had  taken,  and  the  sums 
which  she  had  lavished  for  attaching  Holland  to  her  federative 
system,  in  opposition  to  England. 

The  troubles  which  we  have  just  now  mentioned  were  soon 
followed  by  others,  which  the  innovations  of  the  Emperor  Jo- 
seph II.  had  excited  in  the  Austrian  Netherlands.  The  differ- 
ent edicts  which  that  Prince  had  published  since  the  first  of 
January  1787,  for  introducing  a  new  order  of  administration  in 
the  Government,  both  civil  and  ecclesiastical,  of  the  Belgic  pro- 
vinces, were  regarded  by  the  States  of  that  country  as  contraxy 
to  the  established  constitution,  and  incompatible  with  the  en- 
gagements contracted  by  the  sovereign  on  his  accession.  The 
o-reat  excitement  which  these  innovations  caused,  induced  the 
Emperor  to  recall  his  edicts,  and  to  restore  things  to  their  an- 
cient footing.     Nevertheless,  as  the  public  mind  had  been  exas- 

VOL.  IT.  12 


134  CHAPTER  IX. 

perated  on  both  sides,  disturbances  were  speedily  renewed.  Tbe 
Emperor  having  demanded  a  subsidy,  which  was  refused  by  tlie 
States  of  Brabant  and  Hainault,  this  circumstance  induced  him 
to  revoke  the  amnesty  which  he  had  granted  ;  to  suppress  the 
States  and  Sovereign  Council  of  Brabant ;  and  to  declare,  that 
he  no  longer  considered  himself  bound  by  his  Inaugural  Con- 
tract. A  great  number  of  individuals,  and  several  members  of 
the  States,  were  arrested  by  his  orders.  The  Archbishop  of 
Mechlin,  and  the  Bishop  of  Antwerp,  were  suspected  of  having 
fomented  these  disturbances,  and  saved  themselves  by  flight. 

Two  factions  at  that  time  agitated  the  Belgic  Provinces,  where 
they  fanned  the  flame  of  civil  discord.  The  one,  headed  by  Vonk^ 
an  advocate,  and  supported  by  the  Dukes  of  Ursel  and  Arem- 
bero-,  inclined  to  the  side  of  Austria.     These  limited  their  de- 
mands  to  the  reformation  of  abuses,  and  a  better  system  of  re- 
presentation i^n  the  States  of  the  Netherlands.     The  other,  under 
the  direction  of  Vandemoot,  and  the     Pensionary    Vaneupen, 
<vhile  adhering  to  the  support  of  the  ancient  forms,  pretended  to 
vest  in  the  States,  that  sovereignty  and  independence  of  which 
they  wished  to  deprive  the  House  of  Austria.     The  partisans  of 
Vonk  hoped  to  effect,  by  their  own  means,  the  reforms  which 
they  had  in  view ;  while  the  adherents  of  Vandernoot  founded 
their  hopes  on  the  assistance  of  foreigners — especially  of  Prussia, 
who  would  not  fail,  they  supposed,  to  seize  this  occasion  of  weak- 
ening the  power  of  Austria.     This  latter  party  had  undertaken 
to  open  an  asylum  for  the  discontented  emigrants  of  Brabant,  in 
the  territory  of  the  United  Provinces  in  the  neighbourhood  of 
Breda.    The  two  parties  acted  at  first  in  concert.    Vandermersch, 
a  native  of  Menin  in  Flanders,  and  formerly  a  Colonel  in  the 
Austrian  service,  was  proposed  by  Vonk,  and  received  as  Gen- 
eral by  both  parties.     A  body  of  the  insurgents,  under  the  com- 
mand of  Vandermersch,  marched  to  Turnhout  in  Brabant,  and 
repulsed  the  Austrians,  who  had  come  to  attack  them  under  the 
orders  of  General   Schroeder.     This  first  success  gave  a  stimu- 
lus to  the  insurrection,  which  spread  from  Brabant  over  the  other 
Belgic  provinces.     The  Austrians  abandoned  by  degrees  all  the 
principal  towns  and  places,  and  retired  to  the  fortress  of  Luxem- 
burg.    Vandernoot  made  his  triumphant  entry  into  Brussels. 
The   States  of  Brabant  assembled  in  that  city,  and  proclaimed 
their  independence  (Dec.  29,  1789.)     The  Emperor  Joseph  II. 
was  declared  to  have  forfeited  the  sovereignty,  by  having  viola- 
ted the  engagements  which  he  had  come  under  by  his  Inaugural 
Compact. 

The  example  of  Brabant  was  soon  followed  by  the  other  pro- 
vinces.    An  assembly  of  Deputies,  from  all  the  Belgic  provinces 


PERIOD  VIII,     A,  D.  1713 — 1789.  135 

V7i.fi  forrned  at  Brussels  (Jan.  11,  1790.)  They  signed  an  Act, 
by  which  these  provinces  joined  in  a  confederacy,  under  the  titls 
of  the  United  Belgic  States.  The  rights  of  sovereignty,  in  as 
far  as  regarded  their  common  defence,  were  vested  in  a  Con 
gross,  composed  of  deputies  from  the  different  provinces,  under 
the  name  o^  the  Sovereign  Cojigress  of  the  Belgic  States.  Each 
province  preserved  its  independence,  and  the  exercise  of  the 
legislative  power.  Their  union  was  declared  permanent  and 
irrevocable.  They  meddled  neither  with  religion  nor  the  con- 
stitution, and  they  admitted  no  other  representatives  than  those 
who  had  been  already  nominated.  This  latter  determination 
highly  displeased  General  Vandermersch,  and  all  those  of  Vonk's 
party,  who  had  as  much  horror  for  an  oligarchy  in  the  States  as 
for  the  despotism  of  the  Court  of  Vienna.  The  party  of  the 
States  prevailed  nevertheless  by  the  influence  of  Vandernoot, 
and  the  instigations  of  the  priests  and  monks.  Vandermersch, 
and  all  the  zealous  partisans  of  reform,  were  removed  from  the 
management  of  affairs.  The  former  was  even  arrested,  and 
General  Schonfield  put  in  his  place.  Ruinous  impeachments 
and  imprisonments  were  the  consequences  of  this  triumph  of  the 
aristocratic  faction. 

These  divisions,  added  to  the  death  of  Joseph  II.,  which  hap- 
pened in  the  meantime,  produced  a  change  favourable  for  the 
interests  of  the  Court  of  Vienna.  Leopold  II.,  Vs^ho  succeeded 
his  brother  on  the  throne  of  Austria,  seemed  disposed  to  termi- 
nate all  these  differences ;  and  the  Belgic  Congress,  seeing  they 
could  not  reckon  on  the  assistance  of  foreign  powers,  were  also 
desirous  of  coming  to  an  accommodation.  The  Court  of  Berlin 
had  refused  its  protection  to  the  Belgians,  and  that  of  London 
was  decidedly  opposed  to  their  independence.  These  two  courts, 
conjunctly  with  the  United  Provinces  of  the  Netherlands,  inter- 
posed their  mediation  for  allaying  those  disturbances.  The 
Emperor  Leopold  solemnly  engaged,  under  the  guarantee  of  the 
three  mediating  powers,  to  govern  the  Neth€rlan4s  agreeably  to 
the  constitution,  laws,  and  privileges  which  had  been  in  force 
under  the  Empress  Maria  Theresa;  never  to  do  any  thing  to 
their  prejudice  ;  and  to  annul  whatever  had  been  done  to  the 
contrary  under  the  reign  of  Joseph  II.  A  declaration  published 
by  Leopold  (Nov.  1790,)  enjoined  all  his  Belgic  subjects  to  take 
anew  the  oath  of  allegiance.  That  Prince  granted  a  general 
and  unconditional  pardon  to  all  those  who  should  lay  down  their 
arms  within  a  given  time.  All  the  provinces  in  succession  ac- 
knowledged their  allegiance.  Brussels  opened  her  gates  to  the 
Austrian  troops  (Dec.  2,  1790,)  and  the  patriots  Vaneupen  and 
Vandernoot  took  refnsre  in  Holland, 


jg^  CHAPTER  IX. 

The  animosity  which  had  for  a  long  time  subsisted  hetwetn 
Russia  and  the  Porte,  occasioned  a  new  war  between  these  two 
powers  in  1787.  The  Turks  could  not  endure  the  humiliating 
conditions  which  the  late  treaties  with  Russia  had  imposed  on 
them.  The  high  tone  which  the  Court  of  St.  Petersburg  used 
in  their  communications  with  the  Porte,  wounded  the  pride  of 
the  Ottomans  ;  and  the  extraordinary  journey  of  the  Empress 
to  Cherson  and  the  Crimea  (May  1787,)  in  which  she  was  ac- 
companied by  the  Emperor  Joseph  II.,  created  alarm  even  in 
the  city  of  Constantinople.  The  inhabitants  of  that  capital 
thought  they  could  perceive,  in  that  journey,  a  premeditated  de- 
sign in  the  Courts  of  St.  Petersburg  and  Vienna  to  annihilate 
the  Ottoman  Empire,  and  divide  the  spoil  between  them.  The 
Court  of  London,  supported  by  that  of  Berlin,  dexterously  fanned 
the  spark  which  lay  concealed  under  these  ashes.  They  wish- 
ed to  be  avenged  on  the  Court  of  St.  Petersburg  for  the  difficul- 
ties which  she  had  thrown  in  the  way  of  renewing  their  treaty 
of  commerce ;  as  well  as  the  advantageous  conditions  which  she 
had  granted  to  France  by  the  commercial  treaty  concluded  with 
that  power.  The  great  activity  with  which  Russia  had  carried 
on  her  commerce  in  the  Black  Sea,  since  she  had  obtained  en- 
tire liberty  by  her  treaties  with  the  Pone,  excited  likewise  the 
jealousy  of  England,  who  was  afraid  that  the  commercial  con- 
nexions which  she  maintained  with  that  power,  through  the 
Black  Sea,  might  thereby  be  destroyed.  The  Turks,  moreover, 
had  to  complain  of  the  Russian  Consul  in  Moldavia,  who,  as 
they  alleged,  sought  every  means  to  interrupt  the  peace  and  good 
understanding  between  the  two  Empires.  They  demanded  that 
he  should  be  recalled,  and  moreover,  that  the  Empress  should 
renounce  the  protection  of  Prince  Heraclius,  and  withdraw  her 
troops  from  Georgia.  Finally,  they  wished  that  all  Russian 
vessels  that  passed  the  Straits  should  be  subjected  to  an  exami- 
nation, in  order  to  prevent  contraband  trade. 

These  demands  were  no  sooner  made,  than  the  Divan,  with- 
out waiting  for  an  answer  from  the  Court  of  St.  Petersburg, 
determined  to  proclaim  war  (Aug.  18,  1787,)  by  sending  the 
Russian  minister,  M.  de  Boulgakoff,  to  the  Castle  of  the  Seven 
Towers.  On  the  news  of  this  rupture,  the  Empress  despatched 
a  considerable  force  against  the  Turks  ;  her  troops  extended 
from  Kaminiec  in  Podolia,  to  Balta,  a  Tartar  village  on  the 
frontiers  of  Poland,  between  the  Dniester  and  the  Bog.  Prince 
Potemkin,  the  commander-in-chief  of  the  army,  had  under  him 
Suwarow,  Rcpnin,  Kamenskoi,  and  others.  The  Emperor  Jo- 
seph II.,  after  having  for  some  time  supported  the  character  of 
mediator  between  the  Turks  and  Russians,  engaged  in  the  wai 


PERIOD  vm.     A.  D.  1713—1789.  137 

as  the  ally  of  Russia  (Feb.  9,  1788.)  He  attacked  the  Turks 
in  Moldavia,  and  on  several  points  of  Hungary.  Marshal  Lau- 
don  undertook  the  siege  of  Belgrade-,  of  which  he  made  himself 
master  (Oct  8,  1789.)  It  was  obvious,  however,  that  the  pro- 
gress of  the  Austrians  did  not  correspond  either  to  the  ability  of 
their  generals  or  the  superiority  of  their  arms. 

Another  enemy  of  Russia  appeared  on  the  stage.  Gustavus 
HI.,  King  of  Sweden,  listened  to  the  insinuations  of  the  Cabi- 
nets of  London  and  Berlin,  and  made  a  diversion  in  favour  of 
the  Porte.  That  prince,  after  renewing  his  alliance  with  the 
Porte,  commenced  the  war  against  Russia,  at  the  very  instant 
when  the  whole  of  her  forces  were  turned  against  the  Turks. 
A  land  army  was  formed  by  his  orders  in  Finland,  while  a 
Swedish  fleet,  consisting  of  twenty  ships  of  the  line  and  ten 
frigates,  advanced  on  Cronstadt,  and  threw  the  city  of  St.  Pe- 
tersburg into  a  state  of  great  terror.  An  engagement  between 
the  two  fleets  took  place  near  the  Isle  of  Hoogland  (May  30, 
17S9.)  Both  sides  fought  with  equal  advantage  ;  but  an  un- 
foreseen ev^ent  disconcerted  the  measures  of  the  Swedish  mo- 
narch. Aiier  he  had  made  his  dispositions  for  attacking  the 
city  of  Fredricksheim  in  Finland,  several  officers  of  his  army 
refused  to  march,  alleging  as  a  reason,  that  the  constitution  of 
the  kingdom  would  not  permit  them  to  be  accessary  to  an  offen- 
sive \A'ar,  which  the  Swedish  nation  had  not  sanctioned.  The 
example  of  these  officers  occasioned  the  defection  of  a  great 
part  of  the  troops.  The  expedition  to  Finland  failed,  and  the 
Russians  thus  gained  time  to  put  themselves  in  a  state  of  defence. 

The  Empress,  thus  attacked  by  the  King  of  Sweden,  claimed 
the  supplies  which  Denmark  owed  her,  in  virtue  of  the  alliance 
which  subsisted  between  the  two  States.  The  Danes  fitted  out 
a  squadron,  and  marched  a  body  of  auxiliary  troops  into  tne  go- 
vernment of  Bohus,  which  they  soon  conquered  (1788.)  From 
Bohus  they  marched  to  West  Gothland,  and  laid  siege  to  Got- 
tenburg.  The  King  of  Sweden  hastened  in  person  to  the  de- 
fence of  that  place,  one  of  the  most  important  in  his  kingdom. 
It  would  certainly  have  fallen,  however,  but  for  the  powerful 
intervention  of  the  Cabinets  of  London  and  Berlin,  who  oblig- 
ed the  Court  of  Copenhagen  to  conclude  the  different  truces 
with  Sweden  (1789,)  and  to  adopt  a  perfect  neutrality,  even 
with  the  consent  of  the  court  of  St.  Petersburg. 

The  war  between  the  Swedes  and  the  Russians  was  then  con- 
fined to  naval  operations,  the  success  of  which,  in  the  campaigns 
of  1789  and  1790,  was  nearly  equal  on  both  sides.  The  defeat 
which  the  Swedish  fleet  sustained  in  the  Gulf  of  Viburg  (July 
3, 1790,)  was  compensated  by  the  victory  which  the  King  of  Swe- 

VOL.  n.  12  "^ 


138  CHAPTER   DC. 

den  gained  in  person  (July  9,  10,)  at  Swenkasund  over  the 
Russian  fleet,  commanded  by  the  Prince  of  Nassau- Siegen, 
This  action,  which  cost  the  Russians  many  men,  and  a  great 
number  of  their  ships,  tended  to  accelerate  the  peace  between 
the  two  powers.  The  King  of  Sweden  being  deserted  by  the 
Courts  of  London  and  Berlin,  w^ho  had  drawn  him  into  the  w^ar, 
was  terrified  lest  the  Russians  should  take  advantage  of  the  dis- 
contents that  prevailed  among  the  Swedish  Nobles,  to  penetrate 
into  the  interior  of  his  kingdom.  He  willingly  accepted  the 
equitable  conditions  which  the  Empress  of  Russia  proposed  to 
him.  Peace  was  concluded  in  the  Plain  of  Werela,  near  the 
river  Kymen  (Aug.  14,  1790,)  between  the  advanced  posts  of 
the  two  camps  :  and  the  limits  of  both  States  were  re-estab- 
lished on  the  footing  of  former  treaties. 

As  to  the  events  of  the  war  between  Russia  and  the  Porte, 
they  were  entirely  in  favour  of  the  former  power.  A  body  of 
Russian  troops,  in  conjunction  with  the  Austrian  army,  made 
themselves  masters  of  Choczim  (Sept.  1788.)  Prince  Potem- 
Kin  undertook  the  siege  of  the  important  fortress  of  Oczakoli' 
(Dec.  17,)  and  carried  the  place  by  assault,  in  spite  of  the  cou- 
rageous defence  made  by  the  Turks.  The  whole  garrison  was 
put  to  the  sword,  and  a  great  part  of  the  inhabitants  met  with 
the  same  fate.  Suwarow  and  the  Prince  of  Coburg  beat  the 
Turks  near  Focksani  in  Moldavia  (July  21,  1789.)  The  same 
General,  with  the  assistance  of  that  Prince,  gained  a  brilliant 
victory  over  the  Turks  near  Martinesti,  on  the  banks  of  the 
Rymna  (Sept.  22,)  which  gained  him  the  epithet  of  Rymniski. 
The  taking  of  the  fortress  of  Bender,  was  an  immediate  conse- 
quence of  that  victory.  Besides  the  province  of  OczakofT,  the 
whole  of  Moldavia  and  Bessarabia,  with  Tulcza,  Isakzi,  Kilia,  and 
[smael,  and  the  fortress  of  Sudjoukkale,  in  Turkish  Cuban,  fell 
•successively  into  the  hands  of  the  Russians.  The  taking  of 
[smael  by  Suwarow,  occasioned  prodigious  slaughter.  It  cost 
the  lives  of  30,000  Ottomans  ;  without  reckonmg  the  prisoners, 
who  amounted  to  the  number  of  10,000. 

These  victories  stirred  up  the  jealousy  of  the  British  minis- 
try, who  fitted  out  an  expedition  to  make  a  new  diversion  in  fa- 
vour of  the  Porte,  and  engaged  their  ally,  the  King  of  Prussia, 
to  despatch  a  body  of  troops  to  the  frontiers  of  Silesia  and 
Poland.  Not  confining  himself  to  these  operations,  that  Prince 
concluded  a  formal  alliance  with  the  Porte,  in  which  he  agreed 
to  declare  war  against  the  Austrians,  as  well  as  the  Russians,  in 
the  course  of  next  spring.  The  Emperor  Leopold  11. ,  yielding 
to  these  menaces,  and  being  desirous  of  restoring  peace  to  his 
subjects,  concluded    an  agreement  at  Reichenbach  (July  27. 


PERIOD  VIII.     A.  D.  1713 — 1789.  139 

1790,)  with  the  Court  of  Berlin,  hj  which  he  granted  an  armis- 
tice, and  consented  to  make  a  special  peace  with  the  Porte  on 
the  basis  of  the  status  ante  helium.  This  peace  was  signed 
at  Szistowa,  in  Bulgaria  (Aug.  4,  1791,)  under  the  mediation 
of  Holland  and  Prussia.  The  Emperor  restored  Belgrade,  and 
in  general,  all  that  he  had  taken  from  the  Turks  during  the 
war.  He  agreed  to  retain  Choczim  no  longer  than  the  conclu- 
sion of  the  peace  between  the  Russians  and  the  Turks  ;  only 
they  promised  him  a  more  advantageous  frontier  on  the  left 
bank  of  the  Unna  ;  and  on  the  side  of  Wallachia,  the  river 
Tzerna  was  adopted  as  the  boundary  betAveen  the  two  Empires. 

The  Empress  of  Russia  having  resolved  not  to  receive  the 
proposals  which  the  two  allied  courts  offered  her,  then  continued 
the  war  alone  against  the  Porte,  and  her  generals  signalized 
themselves  by  new  exploits.  At  length  the  British  ministry  be- 
ing convinced  that  this  Princess  would  never  yield,  thought  fit 
to  abandon  the  terms  which,  in  concert  with  the  Court  of  Ber- 
lin, they  had  demanded,  as  the  basis  of  the  peace  to  be  conclud- 
ed between  Russia  and  the  Porte.  Besides,  they  were  desirous 
of  making  up  matters  with  Russia,  at  the  time  when  she  de- 
tached herself  from  France,  by  renouncing  the  engagements 
which  she  had  contracted  with  that  power  by  the  treaty  of  com- 
merce of  1787,  with  the  Court  of  Berlin.  The  British  minis- 
try agreed  never  to  assist  the  Turks,  should  they  persist  in  re- 
fusing the  equitable  conditions  of  peace  which  the  Empress  had 
offered  them. 

A  negotiation  was  opened  at  Galatz  on  the  Danube.  The 
preliminaries  between  Russia  and  the  Porte  were  signed  there ; 
and  the  definitive  peace  concluded  at  Jassy  in  Moldavia  (Jan. 
9,  1792.)  This  treaty  renewed  the  stipulations  of  all  former 
treaties  since  that  of  Kainargi.  The  Dniester  was  establishea 
as  a  perpetual  frontier  between  the  two  Empires.  The  Turks 
ceded  to  Russia  the  fortress  of  Oczakoff,  Avith  all  the  country 
lying  between  the  Bog  and  the  Dniester.  The  cession  of  the 
Crimea,  the  isle  of  Taman,  and  part  of  the  Cuban,  lying  on  the 
right  bank  of  the  river  of  that  name,  was  confirmed  to  Russia. 
The  Porte  likewise  engaged  to  put  a  stop  to  the  piracies  of  the 
Barbary  Corsairs,  and  even  to  indemnify  the  subjects  of  Russia 
for  their  losses,  should  they  not  obtain  reparation  within  a  lim- 
ited time.  Russia  likewise  restored  all  her  other  conquests ; 
only  stipulating,  for  certain  advantages,  in  favour  of  Moldavia 
and  Wallachia. 

It  had  been  agreed  between  the  plenipotentiaries  of  the  two 
Empires,  that  the  Porte  should  pay  a  sum  of  12,000,000  of 
piasters,  to  indemnify  Russia  for  the  expenses  of  the  war.    But 


40  CHAPTER  X. 

immediately  after  the  conclusion  of  the  treaty,  the  Empress  gave 
intimation  that  she  would  renounce  this  payment  in  favour  of 
the  Porte ;  a  piece  of  generosity  which  excited  the  admiration 
of  the  Ottoman  plenipotentiaries.  The  peace  of  Jassy  gave 
new  energv  to  the  commerce  of  the  Russians  on  the  Black 
Sea  ;  and  the  Empress  founded  the  town  and  port  of  Odessa, 
which  is  situated  on  a  bay  of  the  Black  Sea,  between  the  Bog 
and  the  Dniester,  about  nine  leagues  distant  from  Oczakoff. 


CHAPTER  X. 

PERIOD  IX. 


From  the  commencement  of  the  French  Revolution  to  the  down- 
fall of  Buonaparte.    "  a.  d.  1789 — 1815. 

The  period  of  the  French  Revolution,  on  which  we  are  en- 
tering, does  not  comprehend  more  than  twenty-five  years  ;  but 
that  short  space  contains  more  lessons  of  important  instruction 
than  the  two  centuries  which  preceded  it.  In  course  of  that 
time,  the  condition  of  Europe  was  entirely  changed.  The  po- 
litical system,  which  it  had  cost  the  combined  labour  of  three 
hundred  years  to  rear,  was  overturned  from  its  basis,  burying 
kingdoms  and  whole  nations  in  the  ruins. 

It  was  an  era  fertile  in  examples  both  of  virtues  and  vices. 
It  displayed  the  extremes  of  suflering  and  violence,  of  meanness 
and  magnanimity.  Kingdoms  rose  and  disappeared  by  turns. 
New  principles  in  morals  and  politics  flourished  for  a  day,  and 
were  quickly  superseded  by  others.  Europe  was  subdued  and 
enslaved,  first  in  the  name  of  liberty  and  equality,  and  after- 
wards to  gratify  the  ambition  of  a  conqueror.  At  length  an 
end  was  put  to  this  reign  of  despotism  ;  and  the  nations  of  the 
Continent  were  delivered  from  a  usurpation  which  they  had  too 
long  supported  with  patience. 

The  system  of  political  equilibrium  invented  in  the  fifteenth 
century,  and  established  by  the  treaties  of  Westphalia  and 
Utrecht,  was  totally  overthrown  by  France,  during  the  period  of 
which  we  speak.  Two  causes  accelerated  its  downfall.  The 
first  was  the  violation  of  its  fundamental  principles,  by  the  three 
powers  who  dismembered  Poland, — an  act  which  made  justice 
and  equity  yield  to  convenience,  and  set  an  example  that  might 
prove  dangerous  to  their  own  security.  The  other  was  the 
general  belief  which  prevailed  in  the  Cabinets  of  Europe,  that 


PERIOD  IX.      A.  D.  1789—1815.  141 

the  project  of  founding  an  universal  monarchy  was  for  evei 
hopeless  and  visionary — a  persuasion  which  had  lulled  them 
into  a  state  of  fatal  repose.  This  project,  however,  which  they 
thought  impracticable,  was  actually  carried  into  execution ; 
though  it  appeared  under  a  new  form.  The  daring  individual 
who  conceived  the  design,  gave  it  the  name  of  the  Federative 
System.  By  his  plan,  the  different  States  on  the  Continent  were 
to  preserve  an  apparent  independence,  .vhenever  this  did  not 
thwart  his  own  views  ;  but  their  polic}  was  to  be  entirely  sub- 
servient to  his  interest,  and  to  be  regulated  according  to  his  di 
rection.  In  this  manner  he  undertook  to  conquer  the  whole 
world,  with  the  aid  of  the  Federal  States,  who  were  obliged  to 
espouse  his  quarrels,  and  to  make  common  cause  with  him 
against  every  power  that  refused  to  submit  voluntarily  to  his 
sway,  or  to  that  of  his  family,  whom  he  placed  as  his  vassals  op 
some  of  the  most  ancient  thrones  of  Europe. 

To  this  was  added  another,  which  he  called  the  Continental 
System.  Its  main  object  was  to  exclude  Great  Britain  from  all 
commerce  with  the  other  European  states.  By  this  means  he 
hoped  to  deprive  her  of  the  command  of  the  sea,  of  which  she 
was  now  undisputed  mistress  ;  to  annihilate  her  commerce  ;  cut 
off  the  sources  of  her  wealth ;  ruin  her  marine  ;  and  even  to 
overthrow  the  constitution,  which  had  so  long  been  the  boast  and 
happiness  of  the  English  nation.  Had  it  been  possible  to  carry 
this  project  into  execution,  the  Continent  must  necessarily  have 
been  impoverished  and  ruined. 

The  twenty-five  years  of  which  we  are  now  to  give  a  brief 
outline,  are  so  crowded  with  events,  that,  for  the  sake  of  perspi- 
cuity, it  will  be  necessary  to  divide  them  into  separate  periods. 
In  the  history  of  France,  the  natural  divisions  are  the  five  fol- 
lowing, viz.  (1.)  From  the  opening  of  the  States-General,  May 
5,  1789,  till  the  abolition  of  Monarchy  and  the  Constitutional 
Government,  Aug.  10,  1792.  (2.)  The  Eeign  of  Terror ;  from 
Aug.  10,  1792,  till  Oct.  26,  1795,  when  the  Convention  ceased 
to  govern  France.  (3.)  The  Republican  Government;  from 
Oct.  26,  1795  till  May  18,  1804,  when  Buonaparte  was  declared 
Emperor.  (4.)  The  Reign  of  Napoleon  Buonaparte  ;  from  May 
18,  1804,  till  March  30,  1814,  when  the  Allies  entered  Paris. 
(5.)  The  Restoration  of  the  Bourbon  dynasty,  after  an  exile  of 
more  than  twenty  years. 

These  divisions  point  out  the  most  remarkable  changes  that 
occurred  in  France  during  this  period.  Nevertheless,  as  we 
must  notice  the  events  which  took  place  in  the  rest  of  Europe,  a 
more  convenient  division  will  be  as  follows.  (1.)  From  the 
commencement   of  the   French    Revolution   till  the  Peace  of 


142  CHAPTER    X. 

Amiens,  March  27,  1802.  (2.)  From  the  Peace  of  Amiens  till 
the  year  1810,  when  the  power  of  France  was  at  its  greatest 
height.  (3.)  From  the  end  of  the  year  1810,  till  the  Treaty  of 
Paris  in  November  1815,  which  includes  the  decline  and  fall  ot 
the  French  Empire  under  Buonaparte,  and  the  restoration  of  a 
new  political  system  in  Europe.  After  giving  a  sketch  of  the 
various  events  which  happened  in  France,  we  shall  shortly  ad- 
vert to  the  revolution  which  the  different  states  of  Europe  un 
derwent  during  the  same  time.  The  affairs  of  other  parts  of 
the  world  can  only  be  taken  notice  of,  as  they  may  happen  to  be 
connected  or  interwoven  with  those  of  Europe. 

We  now  return  to  the  first  of  these  periods,  commencing  with 
the  origin  of  the  French  Revolution  (May  1789,)  and  ending 
with  the  Peace  of  Amiens. 

The  primary  and  elementary  causes  of  the  Revolution  in 
France  must  be  traced  back  to  the  disordered  state  of  her  finan- 
ces, which  began  under  Louis  XIV. ;  to  the  general  immorality 
which  prevailed  under  the  Regent  Orleans ;  to  the  mal-admin- 
istration  of  the  government  in  the  reign  of  Louis  XV.  ;  and, 
finally,  to  the  new  doctrines,  both  religious  and  political,  which 
had  become  fashionable  after  the  middle  of  the  eighteenth  cen 
tury. 

It  is  not  to  be  denied,  that  there  were  many  abuses  in  the  ex- 
isting government  of  France  that  required  to  be  corrected.  The 
royal  prerogative  at  that  time,  may  be  called  arbitrary  rather 
than  despotic,  for  the  Monarch  had,  in  reality,  greater  power 
than  he  exercised.  The  persons  and  properties  of  the  subject 
w^ere  at  the  disposal  of  the  crown,  by  means  of  imposts,  confis- 
cations, letters  of  exile,  &c.  ;  and  this  dangerous  authority  was 
resisted  only  by  the  feeblest  barriers.  Certain  bodies,  it  is  true, 
possessed  means  of  defence,  but  these  privileges  were  seldom 
respected.  The  noblesse  were  exempted  from  contributions  to 
the  state,  and  totally  separated  from  the  commons,  by  the  prohi- 
bition of  intermarriages.  The  clergy  were  also  exempted  from 
taxation,  for  which  they  substituted  voluntary  grants.  Besides 
these  oppressive  imposts,  the  internal  administration  was  badly 
organized.  The  nation,  divided  into  three  orders,  which  were 
again  subdivided  into  several  classes,  was  abandoned  to  all  the 
evils  of  despotism,  and  all  the  miseries  of  partial  representation. 
The  noblesse  were  divided  into  courtiers,  who  lived  on  the  fa- 
vour of  the  prince,  and  who  had  no  common  sympathies  with 
the  people.  They  held  stations  in  the  army  for  which  they 
were  not  qualified,  and  made  a  trade  of  all  appointments  and 
offices  of  trust.  The  clergy  were  divided  into  two  classes,  one 
of  which  was  destined  for  the  bishoprics  and  abbacies  with  their 


PERIOD  IX.     A.  D.  1789—1815.  143 

rich  revenues,  while  the  other  was  destined  to  poverty  and  la- 
bour. The  commons  scarcely  possessed  a  third  part  of  the 
soil,  for  which  they  were  compelled  to  pay  feudal  services  to  the 
territorial  barons,  tithes  to  the  priests,  and  taxes  to  the  King". 
Tu  compensation  for  so  many  sacrifices,  they  enjoyed  no  rights, 
had  no  share  in  the  administration,  and  were  admitted  to  no  pub- 
lic employments. 

Such  was  the  condition  of  France  when  Louis  XVI,  ascended 
the  throne.  This  order  of  things  could  not  continue  for  ever; 
but  with  proper  caution  and  skilful  management,  many  salutary 
improvements  might  have  been  introduced,  without  plunging 
the  nation  into  rebellion  and  anarchy.  Louis  XVL  had  just 
views  and  amiable  dispositions  ;  but  he  was  without  decision  of 
character,  and  had  no  perseverance  in  his  measures.  His  pro- 
jects for  regenerating  the  State  encountered  obstacles  which  he 
had  not  foreseen,  and  which  he  found  it  impossible  to  overcome. 
He  was  continually  vacillating  in  the  choice  of  his  ministers  ; 
and  his  reign,  up  to  the  assembling  of  the  States-General,  was 
a  complication  of  attempted  reforms,  which  produced  no  benefi- 
cial result.  Maurepas,  Turgot,  and  Malesherbes,  had  been  succes- 
sively intrusted  with  the  management  of  affairs  ;  but  they  found 
it  impossible  to  give  satisfaction  to  any  party.  Their  efforts  for 
retrenchment  displeased  the  courtiers,  while  the  people  were  dis- 
contented at  the  continuation  of  existing  abuses.  The  exhaust- 
ed state  in  which  the  American  war  had  left  the  finances  of  the 
kingdom,  and  the  unskilfulness  of  the  ministers  ;  one  of  whom, 
the  celebrated  Necker,  could  contrive  no  other  method  of  repair- 
ing these  losses,  than  by  means  of  forced  loans,  which  augment- 
ed the  national  debt,  and  added  to  the  other  embarrassments  of 
the  government.  The  plan  of  M.  de  Calonne,  another  of  the 
ministers,  v/as  to  assemble  the  Notalles,  or  respectable  and  dis- 
tinguished persons  of  the  kingdom  (Feb.  23,  1787,)  with  the 
view  of  obtaining  through  their  means  those  new  imposts  which 
he  could  not  expect  to  be  sanctioned  by  the  Parliament  of  Paris. 
But  this  assembly  seemed  little  disposed  to  second  his  designs. 
They  discovered,  with  astonishment,  that  within  a  few  years 
loans  had  been  raised  to  the  amount  of  one  thousand  six  hun- 
dred and  forty-six  millions  of  francs  ;  and  that  there  was  an  an- 
nual deficit  in  the  revenue  of  one  hundred  and  forty  millions. 
This  discovery  was  the  signal  for  the  retirement  of  Calonne. 

His  successor.  Cardinal  Brienne,  the  Archbishop  of  Toulouse 
tried  in  vain  to  overcome  the  resistance  of  the  Parliament,  who 
declared,  by  a  solemn  protestation  (May  3,  178S,)  that  the  right 
of  granting  supplies  belonged  to  the  States-General  alone.  Louis 
XVL,  yielding  to  this  expression  of  the  public  opinion,  promised 


144  CHAPTER  X. 

to  assemble  the  deputies  of  the  nation.  A  second  meeting  of 
the  Notables,  held  at  Versailles  (Nov.  6,)  deliberated  as  to  the 
form  and  constitution  of  the  States-General.  M.  Necker,  who 
was  recalled  to  the  ministry,  counselled  the  King  to  prefer  the 
advice  of  the  minority,  who  had  espoused  the  popular  side ;  and 
proposed  to  grant  to  the  Tiers-Etat,  or  Third  Order,  a  double 
number  of  Representatives  in  the  States-General ;  which  advice 
was  followed. 

The  States-General  were  summoned  to  meet  at  Versailles  on 
the  27th  of  April  1789.  The  number  of  deputies  was  twelve 
hundred ;  six  hundred  of  whom  were  of  the  Tiers-Etat,  three 
hundred  of  the  noblesse,  and  three  hundred  of  the  clergy.  The 
King  opened  the  assembly  in  person  (May  5,  1789.)  It  was 
accompanied  with  great  solemnity  and  magnificence.  The  clergy 
occupied  the  first  place  ;  next  came  the  noblesse.  The  Tiers- 
Etat  followed  last.  These  individuals  comprehended  the  choice 
of  the  nation ;  but  the  greater  part  of  them  were  entirely  inex- 
perienced in  state  affairs,  and  not  a  few  of  them  were  imbued 
with  the  principles  of  the  new  philosophy.  The  majority  pro- 
posed to  regenerate  the  government  according  to  their  own  specu- 
lative notions  ;  while  others  secretly  entertained  the  hope  of 
overturning  it,  to  gratify  their  own  antipathies ;  or  to  satiate 
their  avarice  and  ambition. 

A  difference  immediately  arose  on  the  question,  whether  they 
should  sit  according  to  their  orders.  Conciliatory  measures 
having  been  tried  in  vain,  the  deputies  of  the  Tiers-Etat  resolved 
to  declare  themselves  a  National  Assembly.  The  King  having 
ordered  them  to  suspend  their  sittings,  they  changed  their  plac? 
of  assembly  to  a  Tennis  Court,  where,  in  opposition  to  the  Royal 
authority,  they  took  an  oath  never  to  separate  until  they  hal 
achieved  the  regeneration  of  France.  The  majority  of  the 
clergy,  and  some  of  the  nobles,  joined  this  tumultuous  assembly. 
Louis  XVI.,  by  a  Royal  Session  (June  23,)  condemned  the  con- 
duct of  this  meeting ;  abrogated  its  decisions ;  and  published  a 
declaration  containing  the  basis  of  a  free  constitution.  But  the 
authority  of  the  King  had  now  ceased  to  be  respected.  The 
National  Assembly  refused  to  accept  from  him  as  a  boon,  what 
they  were  preparing  to  seize  by  force.  Alarmed  at  this  opposi- 
tion, Louis  commanded  the  nobles  and  the  clergy  to  join  the 
popular  party,  or  Tiers-Etat,  as  a  measure  for  conciliating  the 
public  mind. 

The  prime  agent  in  this  revolution  was  Mirabeau,  a  man  of 
an  ambitious  and  turbulent  spirit,  who  inflamed  the  Assembly 
by  his  violent  harangues.  A  demagogue  from  interest,  and  of 
g-ood  abilities,  though  immoral  in  his  character,  he  was  resolved 


PERIOD  IX.     A.  D.  1789—1815.  145 

to  build  his  fortune  on  the  pubhc  troubles,  and  to  prevent,  by  all 
n'eans  in  his  power,  the  first  symptoms  of  a  return  to  subordina 
tion  and  tranquilHty.     The  Duke  of  Orleans  supplied   money 
to  corrupt  the  troops,  and  excite  insurrections  over  all  parts  of 
France. 

In  the  mean  time,  the  King  assembled  an  army  at  Versailles, 
under  the  command  of  Marshal  Broglio ;  and  banished  Necker 
(July  11,)  with  whom  he  had  some  just  reasons  to  be  displeased. 
This  was  the  signal  for  a  popular  commotion.  Paris  was  in  a 
state  of  the  greatest  fermentation.  The  press  inflamed  the  pub- 
lic mind.  The  people  discussed  in  the  open  air  those  questions 
which  were  agitated  in  the  Assembly.  A  table  served  the  pur- 
pose of  a  rostrum ;  and  every  citizen  became  an  orator,  who 
harangued  on  the  dangers  of  his  country,  and  the  necessity  of 
resistance.  The  mob  forced  the  Bastille  (July  14,)  seized  on  the 
depots  of  arms,  mounted  the  tri-coloured  cockade,  which  was  the 
distinctive  banner  of  the  city  of  Paris,  and  became  that  of  the 
apostles  of  the  revolution.  Bailly,  the  academician,  was  appoint- 
ed mayor  ;  the  citizens  formed  themselves  into  a  National  Guards 
under  the  command  of  the  Marquis  La  Fayette.  The  King, 
placed  in  so  critical  a  situation,  and  surrounded  with  danger, 
consented  to  withdraw  the  troops  collected  in  the  capital  and 
the  neighbourhood.  He  recalled  M.  Necker,  (July  17,)  and  re- 
paired to  Paris  to  intimate  his  good  intentions  to  the  Assembly ; 
declaring,  that  he  identified  himself  with  the  nation,  and  relied 
on  the  affection  and  allegiance  of  his  subjects. 

The  National  Assembly  had  usurped  the  whole  legislative 
power,  and  undertaken  to  draw  up  a  new  constitution.  Their 
charter  commenced  with  a  Declaratioii  of  the  Rights  of  Man. 
Such  was  the  ardour  of  their  revolutionary  enthusiasm,  that  they 
abolished,  without  discussion,  and  at  one  nocturnal  sitting,  the 
feudal  regime,  the  rights  and  privileges  of  provinces  and  corpo- 
rations, the  tithes,  and  the  greater  part  of  the  seignorial  preroga- 
tives. It  was  decreed  (Aug.  4,)  that  the  legislative  power  should 
be  exercised  by  a  single  chamber ;  and  that  the  King  could  not 
refuse  his  sanction  to  these  decrees  longer  than  four  years. 

As  the  Revolution  did  not  proceed  with  a  rapidity  equal  to  the 
wishes  of  the  Orleans  faction,  they  took  care  to  stir  up  new  insur- 
rections. The  mob  of  Paris  attacked  Versailles  (Oct.  6,)  in- 
vested the  Chateau,  committed  the  most  horrible  excesses,  and 
conducted  the  King  and  his  family  prisoners  to  Paris,  where 
they  were  followed  by  the  National  Assembly.  These  legisla- 
tors decreed  the  spoliation  of  the  clergy,  by  placing  their  benefices 
at  the  disposal  of  the  nation.  They  ordered  the  division  of 
France  into  eighty-three  departments ;  the  sale  of  the  crown- 

VOL.   IT.  I'S 


i46  CHAPTER  X. 

iands,  and  ecclesiastical  property  ;  the  proceeds  of  which  to  be 
pledged  for  the  redemption  of  the  paper  money,  which  was  or- 
dered to  be  issued,  under  the  name  oi  assi gnats  ;  the  admission 
of  Jews  to  the  rights  of  citizens;  the  prohibition  of  monastic 
vows  ;  the  right  of  the  National  Assembly  to  declare  war,  in 
consequence  of  a  proposition  from  the  King;  a  secular  constitu- 
tion, which  rendered  the  clergy  independent  of  the  head  of  the 
church,  and  gave  the  people  a  right  to  nominate  their  bishops  ; 
the  abolition  of  the  noblesse  ;  and  the  establishment  of  a  tribunal 
at  Orleans,  for  judging  crimes  of  high  treason  against  the  nation 

Occupied  with  these  decrees  (1790-91,)  the  National  Assem- 
bly left  the  King  no  authority  to  repress  the  crimes  and  excesses 
which  were  multiplying  every  day  within  the  kingdom ;  nor  did 
they  adopt  themselves  any  measures  for  putting  a  stop  to  them. 
The  King,  indeed,  according  to  the  plan  of  their  constitution, 
was,  to  be  the  depository  and  supreme  head  of  the  executive 
power ;  but  he  had  been  stripped  of  the  means  necessary  to  the 
effective  exercise  of  any  authority  whatever.  He  had  neither 
places  to  grant,  nor  favours  to  bestow.  He  was  left  without  any 
control  over  the  inferior  parts  of  the  administration,  since  the 
men  who  filled  these  posts  were  elected  by  the  people.  He  was 
not  even  allowed  the  pomp  of  a  throne,  or  the  splendour  of  a 
crown.  The  Assembly  seemed  to  think  it  a  part  of  their  glory 
to  divest  their  monarch  of  his  most  valuable  prerogatives.  They 
imagined  that  a  monarchy  could  subsist  when  its  authority  was 
reduced  to  a  phantom  ;  that  the  throne  could  stand  secure  amidst 
the  ruin  of  ranks  ;  exposed  to  all  the  waves  of  faction,  and  when 
every  sentiment  of  respect  and  aflection  was  destroyed.  Such 
was  the  idea  of  royalty  entertained  by  the  French  legislators. 
By  abolishing  the  gradations  of  society,  they  sapped  the  very 
foundations  of  that  frail  and  imaginary  majesty  which  they  had 
modelled  and  fashioned  according  to  their  own  ideas.  Thousands 
of  noble  families,  finding  their  lives  insecure,  resolved  to  abandon 
the  country.  The  King  himself  made  an  attempt  to  escape  from 
the  captivity  in  which  he  was  held.  He  did  escape  in  disguise, 
but  was  recognised,  and  arrested  at  Varennes  by  the  National 
Guard  (June  25,)  reconducted  to  Paris,  and  suspended  from  his 
functions.  Monsieur,  the  King's  brother,  was  more  fortunate. 
He  arrived  at  Brussels.  The  Count  D'Artois,  the  younger 
brother,  had  quitted  France  the  year  before. 

The  Orleans  party  undertook  to  compel  the  National  Assem- 
bly to  pronounce  the  deposition  of  the  King.  A  large  assemblage, 
which  had  met  in  the  Champs-de-Mars  (July  17,  1791,)  was  dis- 
persed by  an  armed  force,  by  order  of  Bailly,  and  commanded 
by  La  Fayette.     The  mode-ate  party  in  the  National  Assembly 


PERIOD  IX.     A.  D.  1789—1815.  147 

had  gained  the  ascendancy.  The  constitutional  articles  were 
revised  in  some  points,  and  digested  into  a  systematic  form. 
The  King  accepted  this  new  code  fS»?pt.  13;)  and  there  was 
every  reason  to  believe  that  he  was  n-solved  to  carry  it  into  exe- 
cution. The  Constituent  Assembly,  aff.ei  having  declared  Avig- 
non and  Venaissin  annexed  to  France,  separated  (Sept.  30,)  to 
make  way  for  a  Legislative  Assembly. 

The  Royal  brothers  and  most  of  the  emigrants,  having  fixed 
their  residence  at  Coblentz,  published  addresses  to  all  the  Courts 
of  Europe,  to  solicit  their  assistance  in  restoring  the  King,  and 
checking  the  revolutionary  torrent  which  threatened  to  inundate 
Germany.  The  Princes  of  the  Empire,  who  had  possessions  in 
Alsace,  found  themselves  aggrieved^by  the  decrees  of  the  Con- 
stituent Assembly,  in  respect  to  those  rights  which  had  been 
guaranteed  to  them  on  the  faith  of  existing  treaties.  They  ac- 
cordingly claimed  the  intervention  of  the  Emperor  and  the 
Empire.  The  Electors  of  Mayence  and  Treves  had  permitted 
the  French  noblesse  to  organize  bodies  of  armed  troops  within 
their  estates.  After  the  arrest  of  the  King  at  Varennes,  the 
Emperor  Leopold  had  addressed  a  circular  to  all  his  brother 
Sovereigns,  dated  from  Padua  (July  6,)  in  which  he  invited  them 
to  form  an  alliance  for  restoring  the  King's  legitimate  author- 
ity in  France.  Accordingly,  an  alliance  was  concluded  at 
Vienna  a  few  days  after  between  Austria  and  Prussia,,  the  object 
of  which  was  to  compel  France  to  maintain  her  treaties  with  the 
neighbouring  States.  The  two  monarchs,  who  met  at  Pilnitz 
(Aug.  27,)  declared  that  they  would  employ  the  most  efficacious 
means  for  leaving  the  King  of  France  at  perfect  liberty  to  lay 
the  foundation  of  monarchical  government.  But  after  Louis 
had  accepted  the  constuution  of  the  Assembly,  the  Emperor 
formally  announced  (Nov.  12,)  that  the  co-operation  of  the  con- 
tracting powers  was  in  consequence  suspended. 

In  a  moment  of  unreflecting  liberality,  the  Constituent  Assem- 
bly had  formerly  declared,  that  none  of  its  members  could  be 
elected  for  the  first  Legislative  Assembly.  This  new  Assembly, 
which  met  Oct.  1,  1791,  was  composed  of  men  altogether  defi- 
cient in  experience,  and  hurried  on  by  the  headlong  fanaticism 
of  revolution.  It  was  divided  into  two  parties.  On  the  right 
hand  were  those  who  hoped  to  preserve  monarchy,  by  maintain- 
ing the  constitution  with  certain  improvements  and  modifications  ; 
and  on  the  left,  those  who  proposed  that  they  should  proceed  in 
their  revolutionary  career.  This  latter  party,  in  which  the  depu- 
ties of  the  Girondists  had  the  ascendancy,  had  conceived  two 
methods  for  overturning  the  constitution,  viz.  1,  to  bring  the 
King  into  disrepute,  by  obliging  him  to  make  use  of  his  suspen- 


148  CHAP  PER  X. 

sive  veto  against  those  decrees  which  appeared  most  popuiar ; 
and  2,  to  involve  the  nation  in  war,  that  they  might  find  employ- 
ment for  the  army,  who  seemed  pleased  with  the  new  order  of 
things.  The  party  on  the  right,  who  formed  the  majority,  had 
not  the  courage  to  oppose  the  execution  of  this  plan.  The  As- 
sembly issued  severe  decrees  against  the  King's  brothers,  as 
well  as  against  the  emigrants  and  the  priests,  who  had  taken  no 
share  in  these  levelling  projects.  They  deprived  the  King  of 
his  body-guard,  and  subjected  him  to  every  species  of  annoyance 
and  humiliation. 

This  Assembly,  however,  was  by  no  means  in  the  enjoyment 
of  entire  liberty.  It  was  unde^  the  influence  of  those  popular 
societies,  known  by  the  name  of  Jacobins,  so  called  from  their 
meetmg  in  a  convent  in  Paris,  formerly  belonging  to  that  reli- 
gious order.  These  societies,  who  had  overspread  all  France, 
were  affiliated  with  each  other,  and  all  under  the  control  and 
direction  of  the  parent  society  in  the  metropolis.  It  was  there 
that  they  prepared  those  laws  which  they  compelled  the  National 
Assembly  to  pass,  and  concocted  their  plots  against  the  Royal 
authority.  They  had  an  immense  number  of  emissaries  in 
every  country,  who  propagated  their  doctrines,  and  prepared  the 
way  for  the  triumph  of  their  principles. 

In  order  to  provoke  a  declaration  of  war,  and  thereby  get  rid 
of  the  army,  the  deputies  on  the  left  never  ceased  to  inveigh  from 
the  public  tribunals  against  the  conduct  of  foreign  powers ;  and 
to  represent  the  King  as  secretly  leagued  with  them  in  their  de- 
signs. His  most  faithful  servants  had  been  the  object  of  their 
calumnies.  The  ministry  resigned  their  office,  and  the  King  re- 
constructed a  cabinet  composed  of  Jacobins  (March  17,  1792,) 
the  most  conspicuous  of  whom  were  Dumouriez,  who  became 
Minister  for  the  Foreign  department,  Clavieres  and  Duranthon, 
who  were  intrusted  with  the  Finance,  and  Roland,  who  was 
promoted  to  the  administration  of  the  Interior. 

The  Emperor  Leopold,  with  whom  they  were  on  terms  of 
negotiation,  demanded  redress  for  the  grievances  of  those  princes 
who  had  possessions  in  Alsace.  Instead  of  giving  him  satisfac- 
tion, the  new  French  Cabinet  induced  the  King  to  propose  to 
the  Assembly  (April  20,)  that  they  could  answer  his  demands 
in  no  other  way  than  by  a  declaration  of  war.  This  proposi- 
tion passed  with  little  deliberation,  and  was  hailed  with  en- 
thusiasm. Seven  members  only  had  the  courage  to  oppose  it. 
The  Assembly  continued  to  issue  their  revolutionary  decrees, 
which  were  both  repugnant  to  the  conscience  of  the  King,  and 
dangerous  to  the  security  of  the  throne.  Louis,  who  had  been 
recently  offended  by  the  dismissal  of  his  guards,  declared  he 


PERIOD  IX.     A.  D.  1789—1815.  149 

could  no  longer  submit  to  the  insolence  of  these  new  ministers, 
three  of  whom  he  discarded  with  indignation.  Their  accom- 
plices, the  Jacobins,  and  Pethion  the  mayor  of  Paris,  then  or- 
ganized an  insurrection  of  the  armed  populace  of  the  Fauxbourgs 
or  suburbs.  The  mob  then  repaired  to  the  Tuileries  (June  20,} 
to  force  the  King  to  sanction  the  decrees  of  the  Assembly,  and 
recall  the  patriot  ministers.  The  King  saved  his  own  life,  and 
that  of  his  Queen,  by  repelling  those  factions  demagogues  with 
firmness  and  courage.  He  constantly  refused  to  grant  what 
they  demanded  of  him  by  violence  ;  while  the  National  Assem- 
bly displayed  the  most  shameful  pusillanimity.  They  even  car- 
ried their  cowardice  so  far,  as  to  replace  Pethion  and  Manuel  in 
their  functions,  whom  the  King  had  suspended  for  having  failed 
to  perform  their  duty. 

Pethion,  and  those  who  ruled  at  their  pleasure  the  Sections 
of  Paris,  where  no  royalist  dared  to  appear,  then  demanded  the 
dethronement  of  the  King;  and  in  order  to  compel  the  Assem- 
bly to  pronounce  sentence  against  him,  the  conspirators  publicly 
organized  a  new  insurrection.  The  populace  rose  in  arms,  and 
attacked  the  Castle  of  the  Tuileries  (Aug.  10.)  The  King  re- 
fused the  assistance  of  those  faithful  citizens  who  had  flocked 
round  his  person.  Misled  by  unwise  or  perfidious  counsels,  he 
repaired  with  his  family  to  Paris ;  and  entering  the  National 
Assembly,  addressed  them  in  these  words  :  "  Gentlemen,  I  am 
come  here  to  avoid  the  commission  of  a  great  crime.  I  shall 
always  consider  myself  and  my  family  in  safety  when  I  am 
among  the  representatives  of  the  nation."  The  populace  having 
assailed  the  Castle,  the  faithful  Swiss  Guards  defended  it  with 
courage,  and  perished  in  the  performance  of  their  duty.  The 
greater  part  of  those  found  in  the  Tuileries  were  massacred 
by  the  rabble.  The  representatives  of  the  nation,  who  were, 
during  this  time,  in  a  state  of  the  greatest  alarm,  decreed,  in 
presence  of  the  Sovereign,  and  on  the  proposal  of  Vergniaud, 
that  the  King  should  be  suspended,  and  a  National  Convention 
assembled. 

Some  days  after,  Louis,  with  his  Queen,  the  Dauphin,  Ma- 
dame Royale,  and  Madame  Elizabeth,  the  King's  sister,  were 
imprisoned  in  the  Temple,  under  a  guard  of  the  municipality  of 
Paris,  composed  of  partisans  of  the  Revolution.  This  munici- 
pality, and  the  ministers  appointed  by  the  Assembly,  exercised 
a  most  tyrannical  authority.  The  prisons  were  crowded  with 
priests  and  nobles.  Danton,  the  Minister  of  Justice,  and  a  most 
violent  revolutionist,  entered  into  arrangements  with  the  Com- 
imme  for  the  massacre  of  these  innocent  men.  The  cruel  work 
of  butchery  continued  for  three  days  without  remorse  (Sept.  2, 

VOL.  II.  13^ 


tUO  "  CHAPTER  X. 

3,)  and  without  the  Legislative  Assembly  daring"  to  interpose. 
A  few  days  after,  the  prisoners  who  had  been  sent  to  the  Tribu- 
nal at  Orleans,  were  conducted  to  Versailles,  and  put  to  death 
by  the  hands  of  relentless  murderers.  At  length  the  Legislative 
Assembly  dissolved,  (Sept.  21,)  to  make  way  for  the  National 
Convention. 

The  war  had  commenced  in  the  month  of  April  179L  Luck- 
ner,  Rochambaud,  and  La  Fayette,  commanded  the  French 
armies,  but  their  operations  were  without  success.  The  Aus- 
trians  had  merely  acted  on  the  defensive.  In  virtue  of  an  alliance 
concluded  at  Berlin  (Feb.  7,)  between  the  Emperor  and  the 
King  of  Prussia,  an  army  of  fifty  thousand  Prussians,  to  which 
were  added  six  thousand  Hessians  and  a  body  of  emigrants,  all 
under  the  command  of  the  Duke  of  Brunswick,  and  an  Austrian 
army,  commanded  by  Clairfait,  entered  France  by  way  of  the 
Ardennes.  Longwy  and  Verdun  opened  their  gates  to  the 
Prussians  (Aug.  13  ;)  but  their  progress  was  arrested  by  the 
manceuvres  of  Dumouriez,  who  had  succeeded  La  Fayette  in 
the  command  of  the  army  ;  as  well  as  by  sickness  and  the  want 
of  provisions.  After  cannonading  Valmy  (Sept.  20,)  which  was 
commanded  by  General  Kellerman,  the  combined  army  retired 
vOwards  the  Rhine,  and  into  the  dutchy  of  Luxemburg. 

The  Girondists,  reinforced  by  all  the  enthusiasts  in  France, 
formed  the  National  Assembly  (Sept.  21,  1792.)  The  very  day 
of  their  meeting,  they  voted  the  abolition  of  royalty,  on  the  pro- 
position of  the  comedian  Collot  D'Herbois,  and  proclaimed  the 
Republic.  Like  the  Assemblies  which  had  preceded  it,  this  was 
divided  into  two  parties  ;  the  one  composed  of  the  Girondists 
and  their  friends,  who  wished  for  the  restoration  of  order  ;  the 
other  called  the  Mountain,  had  an  interest  in  continuing  the 
revolution.  Political  dominion  was  the  object  of  contest  which 
from  the  beginning  engaged  these  two  parties  ;  but  they  assumed 
the  pretext  of  honest  design,  to  conceal  their  main  purpose  from 
the  eyes  of  the  vulgar.  The  deputies  of  the  Mountainists,  as 
they  could  not  charge  their  adversaries  with  the  reproach  of 
Royalism,  exhibited  them  to  the  people  as  Federalists,  a  Te])ro3.ch. 
which  was  afterwards  fatal  to  the  party  ;  and  in  order  to  have  a 
rallying  word,  Tallien  decreed  (Sept.  5,)  that  the  Republic  was 
one  and  indivisible. 

To  detail  all  the  laws  and  acts  which  the  Convention  publish- 
ed during  the  three  years  which  it  oppressed  France,  would  be 
to  unfold  a  disgusting  catalogue  of  crimes  and  extravagances  ; 
we  must  be  content  with  merely  adverting  to  such  of  its  opera- 
tions as  were  distinguished  by  their  enormity,  or  produced  any 
durable  effect.     One  of  its  first  decrees  was,  to  banish  all  emi- 


PERiou  IX.     A.  D.  1789— 1S15.  151 

grants  for  ever ;  and  to  order  those  to  be  put  to  death  who  should 
return  to  their  native  country.  Soon  after,  they  made  a  tender 
of  their  assistance  to  all  subjects  who  might  be  inclined  to  revolt 
against  their  legitimate  sovereigns ;  and  in  the  countries  which 
were  occupied  by  their  own  armies,  they  proclaimed  the  sover- 
eignty of  the  people,  and  the  abolition  of  the  established  authori- 
ties. The  moderate  party,  or,  more  properly  speaking,  the  less 
furious  party  of  the  Convention,  were  willing  to  spare  the  King'^ 
life.  This,  however,  was  one  reason  for  the  Mountainists  to 
put  him  to  death.  The  Convention  accordingly  decreed  (Dec. 
3j  1792,)  that  a  trial  should  be  instituted  against  Louis  Capet, 
as  they  called  him  ;  and  combining,  in  the  most  absurd  manner, 
the  functions  of  accusers,  judges,  and  legislators,  they  assumed 
the  right  of  pronouncing  as  to  his  culpability.  Twice  they  com- 
pelled him  to  appear  at  their  bar  (Dec.  11,  26,)  Avhere  de  Seze, 
Malesherbes,  and  Tronchet  undertook  his  defence.  The  de- 
meanour of  the  King  was  full  of  candour  and  dignity.  Of  seven 
hundred  and  twenty  voters,  six  hundred  and  eighty-three  de- 
clared him  guilty  (Jan.  15, 1793.)  Thirty-seven  refused  to  vote 
on  different  grounds,  some  of  which  were  honourable  ;  but  the 
Assembly  did  not  contain  a  single  man  who  dared  positively  to 
pronounce  the  innocence  of  their  victim.  Two  only  of  those  who 
refused  to  vote,  declared  they  did  not  think  themselves  entitled 
to  sit  as  judges  of  the  King. 

The  minority  in  vain  had  flattered  themselves  that  they  might 
rescue  the  King  from  death,  provided  they  referred  the  punish- 
ment to  the  nation  itself.  But  in  this  they  were  disappointed. 
Of  seven  hundred  and  eighteen  voters,  four  hundred  and  twenty- 
four  objected  to  the  appeal  to  the  people.  Two  hundred  and 
eighty-three  admitted  it ;  and  eleven  had  voted  from  interested 
motives,  which  could  not  be  sustained.  Nothing  now  remained 
but  to  pronounce  the  punishment  to  be  inflicted  on  the  King. 
Of  seven  hundred  and  twenty-one  voters,  three  hundred  and 
sixty-one  were  for  an  unconditional  sentence  of  immediate  death, 
and  among  these  the  Duke  of  Orleans,  (Jan.  17.)  The  partisans 
of  Louis  interposed,  and  appealed  from  this  sentence  to  the  na- 
tion. In  vain  did  the  Girondists  support  this  petition.  Of  six 
hundred  and  ninety  voters,  three  hundred  and  eighty  decided 
that  his  execution  should  take  place  within  twenty-four  hours. 

Louis  heard  his  sentence  of  death  with  composure  and  Chris- 
tian resignation.  He  had  already  made  his  will,  a  monument 
at  once  of  his  piety  and  the  purity  of  his  heart.  He  died  the 
death  of  a  martyr  (Jan.  21,  1793.)  At  the  moment  when  the 
executioner's  axe  was  ready  to  strike,  the  Abbe  Edgeworth,  his 
confessor,  addressed  him  in  these  sublime  words : — "  Son  of  St. 


152  CHAPTER  X. 

Louis,  ascend  to  Heaven  !"  The  whole  inhabitants  of  Paris,  whu 
viewed  this  foul  deed  with  horror,  were  under  arms.  A  mourn- 
ful silence  reigned  in  the  city. 

All  governments  agreed  in  condemning  the  conduct  of  the 
regicides  ;  but  the  voice  of  general  detestation  did  not  check  the 
career  of  the  sanguinary  faction.  The  crime  with  which  the 
Convention  had  stained  themselves  presaged  the  ruin  of  the 
Girondists,  though  they  retarded  their  downfall  by  a  struggle  of 
four  months.  An  insurrection  of  the  sections  of  Paris  (June  2,) 
organized  by  Hebert,  procureur  of  the  commune,  and  by  the 
deputies  Marat,  Danton,  and  Robespierre,  decided  the  victory. 
The  Girondists  were  proscribed  for  the  crime  of  federalism.  The 
victorious  party  honoured  themselves  with  the  title  of  Sans-cu- 
lottes,  and  commenced  what  has  been  called  the  Reign  of  Ter- 
ror. The  Convention  was  now  nothing  more  than  an  assembly 
of  executioners,  and  a  den  of  brigands.  To  hoodwink  and  de- 
ceive the  people,  they  submitted  for  their  approbation  the  plan 
of  a  constitution,  drawn  up  by  Herault  de  Sechelles  (June  24  ;) 
according  to  which  the  Primary  Assemblies  were  to  exercise  the 
sovereignt}?",  and  deliberate  on  all  legislative  measures.  After 
the  2d  of  June,  the  whole  power  was  in  the  hands  of  the  Com- 
mittee of  Public  Safety,  which  was  formed  in  the  Convention. 
Danton,  the  chief  of  the  Cordeliers,  a  popular  assembly  more 
extravagant  than  the  Jacobins  themselves,  had  the  most  influ- 
ence for  a  time ;  but  he  was  soon  supplanted  by  Robespierre. 
The  Constitution  of  the  24:th  of  June  had  been  adopted  in  the 
Primary  Assemblies ;  but  Robespierre  decreed  that  it  should  be 
suspended  (Aug.  28 ;)  and  that  the  Republic  was  in  a  state  of 
revolution,  until  its  independence  was  acknowledged. 

Under  this  title  they  organized  a  government,  the  most  tyran- 
nical and  the  most  sanguinary  which  history  ever  recorded. 
Robespierre  was  at  the  head  of  n.  All  France  swarmed  with 
revolutionary  committees.  Revolutionary  armies  were  dispers- 
ed every  where,  dragging  the  wealthy  and  well-affected  to  pun- 
ishment. A  law  with  regard  to  siispected  persons  changed  all 
the  public  edifices  into  prisons,  and  filled  ail  the  prisons  with 
victims  devoted  to  destruction.  To  remedy  the  fail  of  the  as- 
signats,  the  Convention  fixed  an  assessment,  called  the  maxi- 
mum, on  all  articles  of  consumption :  a  measure  which  reduced 
the  country  to  a  state  of  famine.  The  Queen.  Maria  Antoinette, 
was  accused  before  this  revolutionary  tribunal,  and  brought  to 
the  scaffold  (Oct.  16.)  Many  of  the  Girondist  deputies  were 
arrested  on  the  2d  of  June,  and  met  with  the  same  fate.  The 
Duke  of  Orleans,  who  was  become  an  object  of  execration  to 
all  parties,  perished  there  in  his  turn  (Nov.  7.)     Nobody  pitied 


PERIOD  IX.     A.  D.  1789—1815.  153 

his  fate.  Over  all  the  provinces  of  the  kingdom  the  blood  of 
the  innocent  flowed  in  torrents. 

The  revolutionists  did  not  stop  hero.  To  their  political 
crimes  they  added  acts  of  impiety.  They  began  by  abolishing 
the  Gregorian  calendar  and  the  Christian  era,  and  substituted 
in  its  place  the  era  of  the  Eepublic  ;  to  commence  on  the  22d 
September  1793.  In  a  short  time,  Hebert  and  Chaumette,  two 
chiefs  of  the  commune,  got  the  Convention  to  decree  the  abo- 
lition of  the  Christian  religion  (Nov.  10.)  The  worship  of 
Reason  was  substituted  in  its  place  ;  and  the  church  of  Notre 
Dame  at  Paris  was  profaned,  by  being  converted  into  a  temple 
of  atheism.  Gobel,  the  Constitutional  Bishop  of  Paris,  and  se- 
veral other  ecclesiastics,  publicly  apostatized  from  their  faith. 
Plunder  and  sacrilege  of  all  kinds  were  committed  in  the  Catho- 
lic churches. 

The  departments  in  the  west  of  France  had  remained  faithful 
to  the  King.  In  Poitou,  Maine,  Brittany,  and  Normandy,  a 
civil  war  arose,  known  by  the  name  of  the  Vendean  War,  which 
was  on  the  point  of  overturning  the  Republic.  The  Vendean 
insurgents  took  the  title  of  the  Catholic  army,  which  was  com- 
manded in  the  name  of  Louis  XVII.,  (who  still  remained  a  pri- 
soner in  the  Temple  after  his  father's  death,)  by  a  Council  which 
sat  at  Chatillon.  M.  d'Elbee  w^as  Commander-in-chief.  He 
had  under  him  Artus  de  Bonchamp,  the  Marquis  de  Lescure, 
de  Larochejacquelin,  Cathelineau,  Charette,  and  Stofflet.  This 
insurrection  had  broken  out  on  account  of  a  levy  of  troops  which 
the  Republic  had  ordered. 

The  war  was  carried  on  with  violence  and  cruelty.  Among 
the  most  remarkable  of  its  events  that  happened  in  the  year 
1793,  were  the  battle  of  Saumur  (June  9,)  after  which  all  the 
towns  on  the  Loire,  except  Nantes,  declared  for  the  King ;  the 
battle  of  Chatillon,  where  the  Royalists  were  repeatedly  defeated 
by  the  army  of  Mayence,  which  the  Convention  had  sent  against 
them  ;  the  passage  of  the  Loire  (Oct.  17,  19,)  by  a  hundred 
thousand  of  the  Vendeans,  including  old  men,  women  and  chil- 
dren, who  were  eager  to  approach  the  coast,  where  they  expect- 
ed the  supplies  promised  by  England  to  arrive  ;  the  defeat  of  the 
army  of  Mayence  at  Chateau  Gontier  ;  the  taking  of  Mans  by 
the  Republicans,  and  their  victory  at  Savenay ;  the  taking  of 
Noirmoutier,  where  the  brave  d'Elbee  fell  into  the  hands  of  the 
enemy  (Jan.  2,  1794;)  and,  in  the  last  place,  the  defeat  of  Cha- 
rette at  Machecoult,  The  troops  of  the  Convention  were  com- 
manded in  succession  by  Biron,  Oanclaux,  Westermann,  Kleber, 
Beysser,  I'Echelle,  Marceau,  and  Rossignol.  The  deputy  Car- 
rier de  Nantes  covered  the  whole  country  with  slaughter,  and 
exerted  his  ingenuity  to  invent  new  methods  of  massacre. 


154  CHAPTER  X. 

Other  insurrections  arose  in  the  south  of  France,  after  the  re- 
volution of  the  2d  of  June.  Bourdeaux,  Lyons,  Marseilles,  and 
Toulon,  declared  themselves  against  the  Convention.  Bordeaux 
was  speedily  subdued  (Aug.  25,  1793.)  General  Carteaux  tooL 
possession  of  Marseilles,  with  the  assistance  of  the  populace. 
Toulon  proclaimed  Louis  XVIL  (Aug.  29,)  and  threw  them 
selves  under  the  protection  of  Admirals  Hood  and  Langara,  who 
were  cruising  off  their  coast  with  the  English  and  Spanish  fleets 
Kellerman  had  orders  to  besiege  Lyons ;  a  task  which  was 
afterwards  intrusted  to  Doppet.  This  city  surrendered  after  a 
vigorous  resistance  (Oct.  9.)  It  became  the  scene  of  the  most 
atrocious  actions.  Its  finest  buildings  were  entirely  ruined  and 
demolished  by  order  of  the  Convention.  Carteaux  took  Toulon 
by  assault  (Dec.  24.)  It  was  during  the  siege  of  this  place,  that 
a  young  officer  distinguished  himself  by  his  courage,  and  after- 
wards by  his  enthusiasm  for  the  Revolution.  This  youth  was 
Napoleon  Bonaparte,  a  native  of  Ajaccio  in  Corsica. 

The  very  same  day  on  which  the  Convention  met,  the  Duke 
of  Saxe-Teschen  at  the  head  of  the  Austrian  army,  had  com- 
menced the  siege  of  Lille  ;  but  he  was  obliged  to  raise  it  in  about 
twenty  days.  The  Legislative  Assembly  had  declared  war 
against  the  King  of  Sardinia  (Sept.  10,  1792.)  General  Mon- 
tesquiou  took  possession  of  Savoy,  and  Anselm  made  himself 
master  of  Nice.  Some  months  after,  the  Convention  declared 
these  provinces  to  be  annexed  to  France.  While  the  allies  were 
retiring  from  Champagne,  Custine  took  Mayence  by  a  coup  de 
main  (Oct.  21,)  assisted,  as  it  afterwards  appeared,  by  treachery. 
Dumouriez,  with  a  superior  force,  beat  the  Duke  of  Saxe-Teschen 
at  Gemappe  (Nov.  6,)  and  soon  achieved  the  conquest  of  the 
Belgic  provinces.  The  Convention  having  declared  war  against 
England  and  the  Stadtholder  of  the  Netherlands  (Feb.  1, 1793,) 
as  well  as  against  Spain,  a  powerful  coalition  was  formed  against 
them,  of  which  England  and  Russia  were  the  prime  supporters  ; 
the  one  by  her  ammunitions,  and  the  other  by  the  subsidies  which 
she  furnished.  They  were  joined  by  all  the  Christian  Sover- 
eigns in  Europe,  with  the  exception  of  Denmark. 

Dumouriez  undertook  the  conquest  of  Holland,  and  penetra- 
ted as  far  as  Moerdyk  :  but  he  was  obliged  to  abandon  his  ob- 
ject in  consequence  of  the  defeat  of  Miranda  who  had  laid  siege 
to  Maestricht,  by  the  Austrian  army  under  the  command  of  the 
Duke  of  Saxe-Coburg.  Dumouriez  was  himself  defeated  at 
Nerwinden  (March  18,)  after  which  he  retired  towards  the  fron- 
tier of  France.  Being  determined  to  put  an  end  to  the  tyranny 
ot  the  Convention,  and  to  re-establish  the  constitution  of  1791, 
he  concluded  an  armistice  with  the  Austrians,  and  delivered  up 


PERIOD  IX.     A.  T).  1789 — 1815.  166 

to  them  the  commissioners  which  the  Convention  had  sent  to 
deprive  him  of  his  office  ;  but  his  army  having  refused  to  obey 
him,  he  escaped  to  Tournay,  where  General  Clairfait  then  was. 
The  young  Duke  of  Chartres  accompanied  him  in  his  flight. 

During  the  rest  of  tlie  campaign,  success  was  divided  between 
the  two  parties.  The  Austrians,  who  were  conquerors  at  Fa- 
mars  (May  24,)  took  Conde,  Valenciennes,  and  Quesnoy  (July.) 
The  Duke  of  York,  who  commanded  the  English  army,  was 
Deat  by  Houchard  at  Hondscote  (Sept.  8.)  Jourdan  compelled 
General  Clairfait,  by  means  of  the  battle  of  Wattignies,  to  raise 
the  siege  of  Maubeuge.  On  the  side  of  the  Pyrenees,  the  Span- 
ish generals,  Ricardos  and  Ventura-Caro,  gained  several  advan- 
tages ;  the  former  having  taken  Bellegarde,  Collioure,  and  Port 
Vendre.  On  the  Rhine,  the  allies  had  the  best  of  the  campaign. 
After  an  obstinate  siege,  Mayence  surrendered  to  the  Prussians 
(July  22,)  who  beat  Moreau  at  Pirmasens  (Sept.  14,)  though 
they  failed  in  the  siege  of  Landau.  An  army  of  the  allies, 
80,000  strong,  commanded  by  Wurmser  and  the  Duke  of  Bruns- 
wick, forced  the  lines  at  Wissemburg  (Oct.  13,)  and  penetrated 
nearly  as  far  as  Strasburg  ;  but  General  Pichegru,  who  had 
taken  the  command  of  the  French  army,  obliged  Wurmser  to 
repass  the  Rhine  (Dec.  30.)  The  Prussians  maintained  them- 
selves on  the  left  bank  of  that  river,  between  Oppenheim  and 
Bergen. 

In  France,  the  revolutionists  were  divided  into  three  parties. 
The  Committee  of  Public  Safety,  at  the  head  of  which  was 
Robespierre,  supported  by  the  club  of  Jacobins,  governed  with 
an  absolute  power.  Hebert,  Chaumette,  Anacharsis  Clootz,  a 
native  of  Prussia,  and  the  other  members  of  the  Commune  of 
Paris,  formed  a  second  party  ;  more  violent  than  the  first,  but 
contemptible  from  the  character  of  the  individuals  who  composed 
it.  The  third,  comprehended  Danton,  Desmoulins,  Herault  de 
Sechelles,  and  others,  who  stood  in  awe  of  Robespierre,  and 
were  terrified  by  the  extravagant  fury  of  these  bandits.  The 
faction  of  the  Commune  was  the  first  that  was  annihilated  by 
the  temporary  union  of  the  other  two  parties  (March  24,  1794.) 
After  that,  Robespierre  found  little  difficulty  in  sending  Danton 
and  his  friends  to  the  scaffold  (April  o ;)  but  in  a  short  time  some 
of  the  members  of  the  Committee  of  Public  Safety,  and  the  re- 
mains of  the  Girondist  party,  conspired  against  him.  In  order 
to  please  the  people,  he  abolished  the  worship  of  Reason  (May 
7,)  and  caused  the  Convention  to  proclaim  the  existence  of  a 
Supreme  Being  (June  8;)  he  introduced  a  new  religion,  that  of 
Deism,  of  which  he  created  himself  high-priest. 

The  power  of  Robespierre  was  now  in  its  apogeO;  and  his 


166  CHAPTER  X. 

downfall  approached.  As  the  revolutionary  tribunal  was  not 
sufficiently  expeditious  m  despatching  those  whom  he  had  mark- 
ed out  for  destruction,  he  passed  a  decree  (June  10,)  by  which 
an  unlimited  authority  was  vested  in  that  tribunal.  This  open- 
ed the  eyes  of  his  enemies  in  the  Convention  ;  and,  not  doubt- 
ing that  they  were  doomed  to  death,  they  conspired  the  ruin  of 
the  tyrant.  Tallien  and  Billaud  Varennes  were  the  first  that 
attacked  him  before  the  tribunal.  Having  repeatedly  attempted 
to  defend  himself,  he  was  prevented  by  the  voice  of  the  Assem- 
bly, crying,  "  Down  with  the  tyrant !"  At  length,  repulsed  and 
dispirited,  he  allowed  himself  to  be  arrested.  Having  found 
means,  however,  to  escape  from  the  guard,  he  saved  himself  in 
the  midst  of  the  Commune,  which  was  composed  of  those  who 
had  adhered  to  him  after  the  fall  of  Hebert.  Both  sides  took  to 
arms ;  Robespierre  and  his  faction  were  outlawed,  but  they 
showed  little  courage.  Finding  themselves  undone,  they  en- 
deavoured to  escape  the  swords  of  the  enemy,  by  despatching 
themselves.  Robespierre  attempted  self-destruction,  bat  he  only 
broke  his  jaw-bone  with  a  pistol  shot.  He  was  executed,  with 
twenty-one  of  his  accomplices  (July  28,  1794.)  Eighty-three 
others  met  the  same  fate  in  course  of  the  two  following  days ; 
from  that  time  the  reign  of  terror  was  at  an  end,  and  thousands 
of  innocent  persons  were  liberated  from  the  prisons.  His  do- 
minion, however,  was  not  yet  discontinued ;  and  the  career  of 
this  Convention,  from  its  beginnmg  to  its  dissolution,  was  mark- 
ed by  a  series  of  cruelties  and  oppressions. 

The  campaign  of  1794  was  triumphant  for  the  French  arms. 
Pichegru  commanded  the  army  of  the  North,  and  Jourdan  that 
of  the  Sambre  and  the  Meuse.  The  Duke  of  Coburg  had  at 
first  the  command  of  the  Austiian  army;  but  towards  the  end 
of  the  campaign,  he  transferred  it  to  Clairfait.  The  King  of 
Prussia,  become  disgusted  with  the  war,  had  threatened  to  with- 
draw his  grand  army  from  the  Rhine,  and  to  leave  only  his  con- 
tingent as  a  prince  of  the  Empire,  and  the  20,000  men  which 
he  was  bound  to  furnish  Austria,  in  virtue  of  the  alliance  of 
1792.  But  England  and  Holland  being  engaged,  by  a  conven- 
tion signed  at  the  Hague,  to  furnish  him  with  supplies,  he  pro- 
mised to  retain  62,400  men  under  arms  against  France.  I'key 
were  under  the  command  of  Field-Marshal  Mellendorff.  The 
taking  of  Charleroi  by  Jourdan,  and  the  battle  of  Fleurus,  which 
he  gained  over  the  Duke  of  Coburg  (June  26,)  decided  the  fate 
of  the  Netherlands.  After  some  movements  in  conjunction  with 
the  army  of  the  Upper  Rhine,  under  the  command  of  the  Duke 
of  Saxe-Teschen, — movements  which  had  but  little  success,  from 
the  want  of  agreement  among  the  generals, — Clairfait,  at  the 


PERIOD  IX.     A.  D.  1789—1815.  157 

head  of  the  Austrian  army,  retired,  about  the  end  of  the  year,  on 
the  right  bank  of  the  Rhine,  followed  by  Mellendorff,  whom  the 
French  had  never  been  able  to  bring  into  action. 

The  army  of  the  Pyrenees,  under  the  command  of  Dugom- 
nner,  gained  a  splendid  victory  at  Ceret  over  General  La  Union 
T^April  30,)  and  retook  Bellegarde.  The  two  generals  of  the 
army  were  slain  at  Monte-Nero,  where,  after  a  battle  of  three 
days,  the  Spaniards  Avere  repulsed  by  Perignon  (Nov.  27.)  The 
French  took  Figuieres  (Feb.  4,)  and  Roses  about  two  monihs 
after.  The  western  army  of  the  Pyrenees,  under  the  command 
of  Muller,  entered  Spain,  took  Fontarabia  and  St.  Sebastian 
(Aug.  1,  11,)  beat  the  Spaniards  at  Pampeluna  (Nov.  8,)  and 
spread  terror  to  the  very  gates  of  Madrid.  After  the  reduction 
of  Toulon,  the  English  fleet,  under  Admiral  Howe,  being  invited 
into  Corsica  by  Paoli,  took  possession  of  that  island  (June  18,) 
which  submitted  to  Britain  as  an  independent  kingdom.  The 
French  fleet,  under  Admiral  Villaret  Joyeuse,  was  defeated  oflf 
Ushant  by  Admiral  Howe  (June  1.)  Most  of  the  French  colo- 
nies had  already  fallen  into  the  power  of  the  English. 

General  Pichegru,  favoured  by  the  rigour  of  winter,  and  the 
intrigues  of  the  party  opposed  to  the  House  of  Orange,  had 
made  himself  master,  almost  without  striking  a  blow,  of  the 
United  Provinces  of  the  Netherlands  (Jan.  1795,)  where  the 
Patriots  had  re-established  the  ancient  constitution,  such  as  it  had 
been  before  the  year  1788 ;  the  office  of  Stadtholder  being  again 
abolished,  as  the  Prince  of  Orange,  after  being  deprived  of  all 
his  functions,  had  fled  to  England.  France  concluded  a  treaty 
with  this  Republic  at  the  Hague  (May  16,)  where  the  indepen- 
dence of  the  latter  was  formally  acknowledged.  She  entered 
also  into  an  alliance  against  England  ;  paid  one  hundred  mil- 
lions of  florins  ;  and  ceded  a  part  of  her  territory.  It  was  at 
this  time  (June  8,  1795,)  that  the  roj^al  Infant  Louis  XVII.,  only 
son  oi  Louis  XVI.,  died  in  the  Temple,  in  consequence  of  the 
bad  treatment  which  he  had  endured  incessantly  for  nearly 
three  years.  His  uncle,  \vho  had  assumed  the  title  of  Regent 
about  the  beginning  of  1793,  succeeded  him  in  his  right  to  the 
throne.  That  Prince,  who  then  resided  at  Verona,  took  the 
title  of  Louis  XVIII. 

After  the  battles  of  Mans  and  Savenay,  and  th.'>  taking  of  Noir- 
moutier,  the  Vendeans  had  found  themselves  greatly  exhausted 
But  at  the  time  of  which  we  now  speak,  they  formed  themselves 
into  bands  of  insurgents  in  Brittany  and  Normandy,  under  the 
name  of  Chouans.  After  the  death  of  Larochejacquelin,  Cha- 
rette  and  Sapineau  concluded  a  peace  with  the  Conveiition  at 
Tausnaie  (Feb.  17,  1795.)  Cormartin,  the  leader  of  the  Chouans, 

VOL.  II.  14 


158  CHAPTER  X. 

did  the  same  at  Mabilais ;  but,  a  few  weeks  after,  the  Conven 
lion  caused  him  to  be  arrested  and  shot,  with  seven  other  chiefs. 
This  was  the  signal  for  a  new  insurrection.  The  English  go 
vernment  at  length  resolved  to  send  assistance  to  the  Royalists 
A  body  of  emigrants  and  French  prisoners  of  war  were  landed 
in  the  Bay  of  Quiberon  (June  18.)  But  the  whole  of  the  expe* 
dition  was  badly  managed,  and  had  a  most  disastrous  resalu 
General  Hoche  attacked  the  troops  on  their  debarkation.  The 
greater  part  might  have  saved  themselves  on  board  the  vessels  . 
but  the  Marquis  de  Sombreuil,  and  five  hundred  and  sixty  yoanj» 
men  of  the  best  families,  were  taken  and  shot  by  order  of  Ta^- 
iien  (June  21,)  in  spite  of  the  opposition  of  General  Hoche,  who 
declared  that  he  had  promised  to  spare  their  lives. 

In  the  National  Convention,  two  parties  were  contending  for 
the  superiority ;  the  Thermidorians  or  Moderates,  and  the  Ter- 
rorists. The  inhabitants  of  Paris,  reduced  to  despair  by  the 
dearth  which  the  rnaximum  had  caused,  and  instigated  by  the 
Jacobins,  had  several  times  revolted,  especially  on  the  days  of 
the  12th  Germinal  (April  1,)  and  the  1st  Prairial  (May  20.) 
The  moderate  party,  strengthened  by  the  accession  of  many  of 
the  deputies  proscribed  since  the  2d  June  1793,  gained  the  vie 
tory  ;  and  purged  the  Convention,  by  banishing  or  putting  to 
death  the  most  execrable  of  the  Terrorists.  They  even  concili- 
ated, in  some  respects,  the  opinion  of  the  public,  by  drawing  up 
a  new  constitution  (June  23,)  which  might  appear  wise  and  ju- 
dicious compared  with  the  maxims  which  had  been  disseminated 
for  several  years.  Its  fundamental  elements  were  a  Legislative 
Body,  composed  of  two  elective  chambers  ;  one  of  which  was 
to  have  the  originating  of  the  laws,  and  the  other,  composed  of 
men  of  judgment  and  experience,  was  to  be  invested  with  a 
veto.  The  executive  power  was  to  be  lodged  in  the  hands  of  a 
Council  of  five  persons,  clothed  with  an  authority  greater  than 
that  which  the  Constitution  of  1791  had  given  to  the  King. 
The  Convention  passed  several  other  laws,  which  indicated  a 
desire  to  return  to  the  principles  of  morality.  They  also  resolved 
to  exchange  Madame  Royale,  the  only  remains  of  the  family  of 
Louis  XVI.,  for  the  deputies  delivered  up  by  Dumouriez.  But 
they  lost  again  the  affections  of  the  people,  by  their  laws  of  the 
5th  and  13th  Fructidor  of  the  year  Three,  (Aug.  22,  &  30, 
1795.)  PremoTiished  by  the  fault  which  the  Constituent  As- 
sembly had  committed,  in  prohibiting  its  members  from  entering 
into  the  Legislative  Body,  and  wishing,  at  the  same  time,  to  es- 
cape punishment  for  the  many  crimes  they  had  committed,  they 
ord  lined  that  two-thirds  of  the  members  then  composing  the 
Convention,  should,  of  necessity,  become  a  part  of  the  new  Le- 


PERIOD  IX.     A.  D.  1789—1815.  159 

2:isIation ;  and  that  if  the  Primary  Assemblies  did  not  re-appoint 
live  hundred  of  the  ex-conventional  deputies,  the  newly  elected 
members  should  themselves  complete  the  quota,  by  adding-  a 
sufficient  number  of  their  ancient  colleagues. 

The  New  Constitution  had  been  submitted  for  the  approba- 
tion of  the  people,  which  they  doubted  not  it  would  receive,  as  it 
was  to  deliver  France  from  the  revolutionary  faction.  The  Con- 
vention took  advantage  of  this  disposition  of  the  people,  to  com- 
pel the  Sections  likewise  to  accept  the  two  decrees,  by  declar- 
ing them  an  integral  part  of  the  Constitution.  But  this  attempt 
was  the  occasion  of  new  troubles.  The  Sections  of  Paris  wished 
to  vote  separately  on  the  Constitution,  and  on  the  decrees  which, 
in  that  case,  would  have  been  rejected  over  all  France;  the 
moderate  party  of  the  Convention,  if  we  can  honour  them  with 
that  name,  joined  wdth  the  Terrorists.  Perceiving  the  storm  to 
be  gathering,  they  now  sought  assistance  and  support  from  the 
troops  whose  camp  was  pitched  under  the  walls  of  Paris.  They 
armed  a  large  body  of  men,  at  the  head  of  which  was  Bona- 
parte, who  gained  a  sanguinary  victory  over  the  Parisians,  on 
the  13th  Vendemiaire,  in  the  year  Three  (October  5th,  1795.) 
The  desire  to  restore  the  Bourbons  had  been  the  secret  motive 
with  the  chiefs  of  the  insurrection. 

A  new  Legislative  Body  assembled,  which  might  be  regarded 
as  a  continuation  of  the  Convention;  so  long  at  least  as  the  five 
hundred  deputies  of  the  Convention  were  not  excluded,  who  sat 
in  consequence  of  the  annual  renewals  of  one-third  of  its  mem- 
bers. The  Executive  Directory,  appointed  by  the  Council  of 
the  Ancients  from  a  list  presented  by  the  Council  of  Five  Hun- 
dred, consisted  of  Lareveillere-Lepeaux,  Rewbel,  Barras,  Le 
Tourneur,  and  Carn8t,  who  had  replaced  Sieyes, — this  member 
having  declined  to  make  one  of  the  Directory — the  whole  five 
being  Regicides.  The  forms  of  Terrorism  were  mitigated  in 
some  respects,  but  the  morals  of  the  administration  gained  no- 
thing by  the  change.  The  reign  of  the  Directory  was  an  era  of 
corruption  and  dissoluteness,  whose  efTects  were  long  felt.  An 
Unbounded  avarice  seized  the  nation,  and  the  Directory  encour- 
aged and  fed  that  shameful  passion,  by  lending  itself  to  the 
most  infamous  traffic.  Men  coveted  the  nobility  of  riches, 
rather  than  that  of  honour  and  birth. 

The  Directory  had  to  struggle  against  two  inconveniences ; 
the  one  was  the  spirit  of  rebellion,  which  induced  the  Terrorists 
to  form  a  conspiracy  among  themselves, — such  as  that  of  Druet 
and  Babeuf  (M5»y  10,  1796,)  and  that  which  is  known  by  the 
name  of  the  Conspiracy  of  the  Camp  at  Grenoble  (Sept.  9.) 
The  other  inconvenience  was  still  more  serious,  namely,  the 


160  CHAPTER  X. 

embarrassed  state  of  the  finances.  The  quantity  of  as^ignats 
thrown  into  circulation,  amounted  to  18,933,500,000  francs.  To 
reduce  this  sum,  they  decreed  a  loan  of  600,000,000  in  specie. 
This  measure  proving  ineffectual,  the  assignats  were  replaced 
by  another  sort  of  paper-money,  viz.  rescriptions  ;  and  finally  by 
mandates.  But  both  of  these  were  discredited ;  the  former  after 
being  issued,  and  the  latter  even  before  they  were  put  into  effec- 
tive circulation,  on  the  ground  that  it  would  be  found  necessary 
to  withdraw  them  altogether  from  circulation.  The  State  thus 
became  bankrupt  for  thirty-nine  thousand  millions  of  francs.  It 
then  became  necessary  to  have  recourse  to  a  system  of  regular 
imposts,  which  the  people  had  not  been  accustomed  to  pay. 

The  Executive  Directory  had  succeeded  in  putting  an  end  to 
the  war  in  La  Vendee.  This  success  was  owing  to  the  firmness 
and  moderation  of  General  Hoche.  Stofflet  was  betrayed,  and 
shot  at  Angers  (Feb.  25,  1796.)  Charette  who  had  fallen  into 
the  hands  of  the  Republicans,  met  with  the  same  fate  at  Nantes 
soon  after.  His  death  put  an  end  to  the  war  (March  29.)  The 
Count  d'Autichamp,  and  the  other  Vendean  Generals,  signed  a 
treaty  of  peace  with  Hoche.  George  Cadoudal,  the  leader  of 
the  Chouans,  fled  to  England. 

At  first,  from  the  accession  of  a  third  of  the  members  of  the 
two  legislative  councils,  the  moderate  party  gained  the  ascend- 
ancy. On  M.  Berthelemy's  being  appointed  to  the  Directory, 
there  arose  a  schism  betvv^een  Lareveillere-Lepeaux,  Rewbel,  and 
Barras,  who  were  called  the  Triumvirs,  and  Carn6t  and  Ber- 
thelemy,  who  were  inclined  for  peace,  and  for  putting  an  end  to 
the  measures  of  the  Revolution.  The  triumvirate  lost  the  ma- 
jority in  the  Council,  where  Pichegru  had  put  himself  at  the 
head  of  the  moderate  party,  who  hoped  to  restore  the  monarchy. 
Royalism,  assisted  by  the  liberty  of  the  press  which  France  then 
enjoyed,  had  made  such  progress  as  frightened  the  triumvirs. 
They  thought  themselves  sure  of  the  army,  so  easy  to  be  sedu- 
ced when  they  are  allowed  to  deliberate ;  and  especially  of  Bo- 
naparte. They  then  performed  the  exploit,  which  is  known  by 
the  name  of  the  Revolution  of  the  18th  Fructidor  (Sept.  4.) 
Sixty-five  deputies,  and  the  two  Directors,  Berthelemy  and  Car- 
not,  were  condemned  to  transportation  ;  and  such  of  them  as 
were  apprehended,  were  banished  to  the  deserts  of  Sinamari  in 
Guiana.  The  last  named  deputies  of  the  two  Councils  were 
expelled ;  and  the  moderate  laws,  issued  three  months  before, 
were  superseded  by  revolutionary  measures.  The  authors,  ed- 
itors, and  printers  of  royalist  or  moderate  Journals,  were  also 
transported  ;  the  liberty  of  the  press  was  abolished,  and  contin- 
iied  so  in  France  from  that  time  till  1814.     Merlin,  a  lawyer  o 


PERIOD  IX.     A.  D.  1789—1815.  161 

Douay,  was  appointed  to  the  place  of  one  of  the  exiled  Pirec- 
tiirs,  and  the  poet  Francois,  anative  of  Neuchateau  in  Lorrain,  to 
that  of  another. 

Here,  it  will  be  proper  to  take  a  retrospect  of  the  events  of  the 
war.  The  Grand  Duke  of  Tuscany  was  the  first  that  set  the 
example  of  a  reconciliation  with  France,  which  was  signed  at 
Paris,  (Feb.  9,  1795.)  The  King  of  Prussia,  whose  finances 
were  exhausted,  entered  into  a  negotiation  with  Berthelemey, 
the  Eepublican  ambassador,  which  was  concluded  at  Basle  by 
Baron  Hardenberg,  (April  5.)  Prussia  not  only  abandoned  the 
coalition  ;  she  even  guaranteed  the  neutrality  of  the  North  of 
Germany,  according  to  a  line  of  demarcation  which  was  fixed 
by  a  special  convention,  (May  17.)  The  Landgrave  of  Hesse 
Cassel  likewise  made  peace  at  Basle,  (Aug.  28th.) 

The  retreat  of  the  Prussians  on  the  one  hand,  and  the  scar- 
city which  prevailed  in  France  on  the  other,  had  retarded  the 
Qpening  of  the  campaign  of  1795.  Field  Marshal  Bender  hav- 
mg  reduced  Luxemburg,  after  a  siege  of  eight  months,  and  a 
plentiful  harvest  having  once  more  restored  abundance,  the 
army  of  the  Sambre  and  Meuse,  commanded  by  Jourdan,  and 
:hat  of  the  Rhine  and  Moselle,  under  Pichegru,  passed  the  Rhine. 
The  former,  being  beat  at  Hochst  by  Clairfait,  (Oct.  11,)  repas- 
sed that  river  in  disorder ;  and  Mayence,  then  under  siege,  was 
relieved.  Pichegru,  who  had  taken  Manheim,  (Sept.  22,)  re- 
treated in  like  manner,  and  General  Wurmser  retook  that  city. 
An  armistice  was  concluded  on  the  last  day  of  the  year. 

In  Italy  the  French  were  expelled  from  Piedmont  and  the 
States  of  Genoa,  which  they  had  invaded  ;  but  the  victory  which 
Scherer  gained  over  de  Vins  at  Lovano  (Nov.  23,)  was  a  pre- 
lude to  greater  advantages,  which  they  gained  in  course  of  next 
year. 

In  Spain,  Moncey  gained  the  battle  of  Ormea,  and  occupied 
Bilboa.  But  the  peace  which  the  Chevalier  Yriarte  signed  at 
Basle,  (July  6,)  put  an  end  to  his  conquests.  The  King  of  Spain 
ceded  to  the  Republic  his  part  of  the  Island  of  St.  Domingo. 
Lord  Bridport  defeated  the  French  fleet  off  L'Orient,  (June  23, 
1795,)  which  intended  to  oppose  the  debarkation  of  the  emi- 
grants at  Quiberon.  The  coalition,  which  the  retirement  of 
Prussia  and  Spain  had  threatened  to  dissolve,  gained  fresh 
strength  by  several  new  alliances,  such  as  that  of  Vienna,  be- 
tween Austria  and  Great  Britain,  (May  20,)  and  the  Triple  Al- 
liance of  St.  Petersburg,  (Sept.  28.) 

The  campaign  of  1796,  was  glorious  for  the  French  arms  in 
Italy.      Napoleon  Bonaparte  was  there,   at  the  head  of  an  army 
destitute  of  every  thing  except  courage.     By  a  series  of  vic- 
VOL    II.  14^ 


1(52  CHAPTER   X. 

tories  which  he  gained  at  Montenotte,  Dego,  Millesimo,  Cev4, 
and  Mondovi,  over  the  Austrian  General  Beauiieux,  and  the 
Sardinian  General  Colli,  he  obliged  the  King  of  Sardinia  to 
sign  a  truce  at  Cherasco,  (April  28,)  by  which  he  surrendered 
up  three  fortresses.  Bonaparte  passed  the  Po  at  Placentia ; 
granted  a  truce  on  very  disadvantageous  terms  to  the  Duke  of 
Parma;  and  forced  the  passage  of  the  Bridge  of  Lodi,  (May 
9.)  The  fate  of  Lombardy  was  decided.  Cremona  and  Piz- 
zighitone  opened  their  gates  to  the  conqueror,  (May  14,)  who 
soon  made  his  entry  into  Milan.  The  Duke  of  Modena  obtain- 
ed a  suspension  of  arms.  The  King  of  Sardinia  agreed  to  sign 
a  peace  at  Paris,  by  which  he  surrendered  Savoy  and  the  dis- 
trict of  Nice.  The  terror  of  the  French  arms  was  so  great, 
that  the  King  of  Naples  promised  to  remain  neutral,  by  a  con- 
vention which  he  concluded  at  Brescia  (June  5.)  The  Pope 
also  obtained  neutrality,  by  the  armistice  of  Bologna,  (June  28,) 
but  on  conditions  exceedingly  severe.  Though  the  war  had 
ceased  in  Tuscany,  a  body  of  French  troops  occupied  Leghorn, 
(June  28,)  to  seize  the  English  merchandise  in  that  port. 

The  Court  of  Vienna  was  resolved  to  make  every  effort  to 
save  Mantua,  the  only  place  which  remained  to  them  in  Italy. 
At  the  head  of  50,000  fresh  troops,  Wurmser  marched  from  the 
Tyrol,  broke  the  French  lines  on  the  Adige,  (July  31,)  and  com- 
pelled Bonaparte  to  raise  the  siege  of  Mantua.  The  latter 
General  encountered  the  Austrians,  and  beat  them  at  Castiff- 
lione  ;  without  however,  being  able  to  prevent  Wurmser  from 
throwing  fresh  supplies  into  Mantua.  This  place  was  invested 
a  second  time  ;  and  a  second  time  the  Austrian  army  marched 
to  its  relief.  While  Bonaparte  was  engaged  with  Davidovitch 
at  Roveredo,  (Sept.  4,)  and  Massena  pushing  on  as  far  as  Trent, 
Wurmser  marched  in  all  haste  towards  Mantua.  Bonaparte 
suddenly  directed  his  course  against  him,  vanquished  him  in 
several  battles,  and  compelled  him  to  throw  himself,  with  the 
wreck  of  his  army  into  the  fortress  (Sept.  15.)  After  this 
event,  the  King  of  the  Two  Sicilies,  and  the  Duke  of  Parma, 
signed  a  definitive  neace  at  Paris  ;  and  the  Republic  of  Genoa 
concluded  a  treaty,  (Oct.  9,)  by  which  it  retained  at  least  the 
appearance  of  independence.  Austria  tried  a  third  time  to 
relieve  Mantua.  Two  armies  under  the  command  of  Alvinzi 
and  Davidovitch  marched,  the  one  from  Friuli,  and  the  other 
from  the  Tyrol.  The  former  was  encountered  by  Bonaparte, 
who  defeated  them  in  a  sanguinary  action  at  Arcole,  (Nov.  17.) 
Immediately  he  directed  his  march  against  the  other,  and  beat 
them  at  Rivoli,  (Nov.  21.) 

While  matters  were  thus  passing  in  Italy,  the  anay  of  the 


?ERioD  IX.     A.  D.  1789—1815.  163 

^srfibre  diiO.  Meuse,  commanded  by  Jourdan,  had  several  en- 
gagements with  the  Archduke-Charles,  brother  of  the  Emperor, 
on  the  Sieo-  and  the  Lahn.  Moreau,  at  the  head  of  the  army  of 
the  Rhine  and  Moselle,  passed  the  Rhine  at  Strasburg,  and  gained 
several  advantages  over  the  army  which  Wurmser  had  com- 
manded at  the  beginning  of  the  campaign ;  he  concluded  truces 
with  the  Duke  of  Wurtemberg,  the  Margrave  of  Baden,  and  the 
Circle  of  Swabia,  who  supplied  him  with  money  and  provisions, 
(July,)  and  penetrated  into  Bavaria,  the  Elector  of  which  was  also 
obliged  to  submit  to  very  rigorous  conditions,  (Sept.  7,)  to  obtain 
a  suspension  of  arms.  Jourdan,  on  his  side,  having  also  passed 
the  Rhine,  marched  through  Franconia,  as  far  as  the  Upper 
Palatinate.  The  Archduke-Charles,  who,  since  the  departure  of 
Wurmser  for  Italy,  had  been  at  the  head  of  all  the  Austrian 
armies  in  Germany,  retired  before  so  great  a  superiority  of  num- 
bers, and  drew  near  to  the  quarter  whence  he  expected  the  ar- 
rival of  reinforcements.  He  immediately  fell  on  the  undis- 
ciplined army  of  Jourdan,  defeated  them  at  Amberg,  (Aug.  24,) 
and  Wurtsburg,  (Sept.  3  ;)  and  put  them  so  completely  to  the 
rout,  that  they  were  obliged  to  repass  the  Rhine  (Sept.  19.)  This 
disaster  compelled  Moreau  to  make  his  retreat ;  in  effecting 
which,  he  displayed  the  talents  of  a  great  general.  After  a 
number  of  engagements,  in  which  he  was  more  frequently  the 
conqueror  than  conquered,  he  brought  back  his  army  to  Hunin- 
gen,  (Oct.  26,)  where  they  passed  the  Rhine.  That  fortress  and 
Kehl  were  the  only  points  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Rhine  which 
remained  in  the  possession  of  the  French. 

The  Cabinet  of  London,  finding  that  Spain  had  declared  war 
against  her  (Aug.  19,)  according  to  the  treaty  of  St.  Ildefonso 
which  allied  her  strictly  with  France  ;  and  moreover,  seeing 
Ireland  threatened  with  an  invasion,  ordered  the  British  troops 
to  evacuate  the  island  of  Corsica,  (Oct.  21,)  of  which  the  French 
took  possession.  Lord  Malmesbury  was  sent  to  Lille  to  nego- 
tiate a  peace  (Oct.  24,)  which  he  was  not  able  to  obtain,  because 
the  conditions  were  not  agreeable  to  the  three  Directors  who 
formed  the  majority.  The  attempts  which  the  French  made  to 
land  in  Ireland  (Dec.  22,)  under  Admiral  Morard  de  Galles,  and 
General  Hoche,  proved  unsuccessful. 

In  1797,  the  Austrians  made  a  fourth  attempt  to  save  Man- 
tua. Alvinzi  arrived  with  80,000  men  ;  but  after  several  bloody 
engagements,  this  army  was  dispersed,  and  old  Wurmser  was 
compelled  to  surrender  Mantua  by  capitulation  (Feb.  2.)  Bo- 
naparte, who  had  broken  his  truce  with  the  Pope,  invaded  the 
Ecclesiastical  States  ;  but  being  menaced  in  the  rear  by  a  new 
Austrian  army,  he  again  made  peace  with  his  Holiness  at  To- 


^6-i  CHAPTER   X. 

ientino  (Feb.  19.)  The  Pope,  besides  renouncing  Avignon  and 
the  Venaissin,  ceded  also  Ferrara,  Bologna  and  Romagna.  The 
new  Austrian  army  in  Italy  was  commanded  by  the  Archduke- 
Charles  ;  but  not  being  able  to  cope  with  that  of  Bonaparte  in 
pitched  battle,  the  Archduke  retired  through  the  Tyrol  and  Carin- 
thia  into  Stiria,  where  he  was  followed  by  the  French  General. 
This  precipitate  march  threw  the  French  army  into  a  situation 
highly  perilous  ;  since,  besides  the  want  of  provisions,  they  were 
menaced  in  the  rear  by  an  insurrection  of  the  Tyrol,  and  the 
arms  of  the  Venetian  Republic.  Bonaparte  then  offered  peace, 
which  was  accepted  by  the  Cabinet  of  Vienna,  and  signed  at 
Leoben  (April  18,  1797,)  the  same  day  that  Hoche  passed  the 
Rhine  at  Neuwied ;  and  two  days  after  Moreau  had  passed  that 
river  at  Strasburg. 

The  preliminaries  at  Leoben  were  honourable  for  Austria. 
She  renounced,  it  is  true,  Belgium  and  all  her  possessions  in 
Italy,  as  far  as  the  Oglio  ;  but  she  was  indemnified  by  a  con- 
siderable part  of  the  Venetian  territory,  as  well  as  by  Istria  and 
Dalmatia ;  for  which  the  Republic  were  to  receive  Bologna, 
Ferrara  and  Romagna  ;  Peschiera  and  Mantua  were  to  be  sur- 
rendered to  the  Emperor.  France  recognised  the  principle,  thai 
the  integrality  of  the  Empire  was  to  be  the  basis  of  a  pacifica- 
tion with  the  Germanic  Body.  Immediately  after  the  peace  ol 
Leoben,  Bonaparte,  without  having  received  orders,  overturned 
the  Venetian  Republic,  and  caused  his  troops  to  occupy  that 
city  (May  16.)  He  united  the  provinces  of  Lombardy  which 
Austria  had  ceded,  into  a  Republic,  on  the  model  of  that  ol 
France  (June  29  ;)  and  this  new  State  was  called  the  Cisalpine 
Republic.  He  obliged  the  Genoese  to  change  their  government, 
and  to  constitute  themselves  into  the  Ligu7-ia7i  Republic  (June  6.) 

The  negotiations  for  a  definitive  peace  were  long  in  coming 
to  a  conclusion.  Bonaparte  regretted  having  promised  the 
restitution  of  Mantua ;  and  the  three  Jacobin  members  of  the 
Directory,  who  were  displeased  with  the  terms  on  which  the 
peace  with  Germany  was  to  be  founded,  began  to  intrigue  for 
the  cession  of  the  left  bank  of  the  Rhine  ;  and  with  this  view, 
to  protract  the  conclusion  of  the  peace,  until  the  Revolution  of 
the  18th  Fructidor  should  gain  their  party  the  assendancy.  The 
negotiations  with  Lord  Malmesbury  w^ere  immediately  broken 
off;  and  Bonaparte  threatened  to  resume  hostilities,  unless 
Austria  would  accept  the  conditions  dictated  by  the  New  Di- 
rectory. Peace  was  at  length  concluded  at  Campo  Formio  near 
Udina,  (Oct.  17,)  by  Buonaparte,  and  Count  Louis  de  Cobenzl. 
The  two  parties  divided  between  them,  it  is  said,  the  whole  ter- 
ritory of  the  Republic  of  Venice ;  so  that  the  Adige  should  be 


PERIOD  IX.      A.  D.  i7b'i) — ISlo.  165 

\he  frontier  on  the  Continent  of  Italy,  while  the  Venetian  Is- 
lands, on  the  coast  of  Albania  and  Turkey,  should  belong  to 
France.  Austrian  Lombardy,  with  Peschiera  and  Maniua,  the 
Modenois,  and  the  Venetian  territor}^  to  the  west  of  the  Adige, 
and  the  three  Legatines  of  Bologna,  Ferrara,  and  Romagna, 
were  to  form  the  Cisalpine  Republic.  A  Congress  for  a  treaty 
of  peace  with  th€  Empire  was  to  be  opened  at  Rastadt.  By 
certain  secret  articles,  the  Emperor  consented  eventually  to  the 
perpetual  and  complete  cession  of  the  left  bank  of  the  Rhine  ; 
and  stipulated  for  himself  the  possession  of  Salzburg,  in  case  of 
a  partial  cession  ;  and  greater  advantages,  provided  the  whole 
left  bank  of  the  Rhine  were  abandoned  to  France.  The  States 
of  German}',  who  might  suffer  loss  by  the  partial  or  total  cession 
of  the  left  bank  of  the  Rhine,  were  to  receive  indemnification 
in  Germany,  as  was  expressed  in  the  treaty.  A  compensation 
was  to  be  allowed  to  the  Prince  of  Orange  ;  but  this  was  not 
to  take  place  in  the  neighbourhood  of  the  Batavian  Republic, 
nor  in  that  of  the  Austrian  possessions.  Prussia  was  to  pre 
serve  her  provinces  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Rhine  ;  but  she  was 
to  claim  no  new  acquisitions  in  Germany. 

The  Directory  were  not  equally  satisfied  with  all  the  articles 
of  this  treaty  ;  but  they  durst  not  disavow  the  negotiator,  who 
had  assisted  in  accomplishing  the  Revolution  of  the  ISth  Fruc- 
tidor.  The  French  government  were  displeased  Avith  the  in- 
crease of  power  granted  to  Austria,  and  especially  with  the 
dismemberment  of  Bavaria,  which  Rewbel,  who  piqued  himself 
on  his  political  abilities,  reg'arded  with  reason  as  contrary  to  the 
interests  of  France.  Moreover,  the  articles  relative  to  Prussia 
and  the  Prince  of  Orange  were  in  direct  opposition  to  the  Con- 
vention of  Berlin,  (1794,)  which  was  the  basis  of  the  existing 
•unanimity  between  Prussia  and  France.  By  that  Convention 
the  Bishopric  of  Munster  was  made  over  to  the  King,  by  way  of 
reimbursement  for  his  possessions  beyond  the  Rhine ;  while  the 
House  of  Orange  was  to  have  Wurtzburg  and  Bamberg.  These 
circumstances  obliged  the  Directory  to  conceal  from  the  Court  of 
Berlin  the  secret  articles  of  the  treaty  of  Campo  Formio  ;  and 
this  constraint  greatly  embarrassed  them,  by  the  mistrust  which 
it  excited  on  the  part  of  Prussia. 

General  Bonaparte,  with  Trielhard  and  Bonnier,  members 
of  the  Convention,  were  appointed  to  negotiate  at  Rastadt  with 
the  deputation  of  the  Empire.  Bonaparte  made  only  a  short  stay 
(here,  to  sign  a  secret  convention  with  Count  Louis  de  Cobenzl, 
(Dec.  1 ;)  according  to  which  Maj^ence  was  to  be  restored  to  the 
troops  of  the  French  Republic,  in  fulfilment  of  what  had  been 
resolved  on  at  Campo  Formio.     The  object  which  the  Frenck 


166  CHAPTER  X. 

negotiators  proposed,  was  to  obtain  the  entire  cession  of  the 
left  bank  of  the  Rhine,  free  from  all  charges  ;  and  to  obtain  it 
without  being  obliged  to  purchase  it  at  the  price  which  Bona- 
parte had  promised  to  Austria.  The  means  for  attaining  the 
object  were,  to  secure  the  consent  of  the  majority  of  the  deputa- 
tion, and  the  agreement  of  Prussia,  and  then  to  prevail  with 
the  latter  to  object  to  the  dismemberment  of  Bavaria — a  measure 
which  would  compel  France  to  reveal  the  secret  negotiations 
at  Campo  Formio.  The  first  proposition  on  which  these  min- 
isters demanded  the  cession  of  the  whole  left  bank  of  the 
Khine,  became  the  subject  of  a  tedious  negotiation,  alternately 
promoted  and  thwarted  by  a  thousand  intrigues.  At  length 
the  deputation  admitted  it  (March  1798,)  but  under  restrictions 
which  the  ministers  were  determined  to  reject.  The  latter  then 
proposed  as  a  second  basis,  the  idemnification  of  the  princes  in 
possession  of  the  left  bank  of  the  Rhine  ;  which  was  adopted 
without  much  difficulty  (^March  15.)  The  third  demand  re- 
ferred to  the  manner  of  carrying  ihe  fundamental  articles  into 
execution.  On  this  ground  the  French  advanced  a  multitud-e 
of  pretensions,  each  more  unjust  and  more  ridiculous  than  the 
other. 

Until  then  the  negotiations,  in  all  probability,  were  serious 
on  the  part  of  Austria  and  France  ;  as  the  former,  supported  by 
Russia,  hoped  to  obtain  the  consent  of  Prussia  to  the  dismem- 
berment of  Bavaria ;  while  France,  on  her  side,  vainly  antici- 
pated a  strict  alliance  with  the  Cabinet  of  Berlin,  which  would 
nave  enabled  the  Directory  to  have  dictated  its  own  conditions 
of  peace.  But,  towards  the  middle  of  the  year,  war  had  be- 
come inevitable,  in  consequence  of  the  numerous  aggressions 
which  the  Executive  Directory  had  committed  in  different  coun- 
tries. To  them  war  had  become  necessary  to  occupy  their  ar- 
mies. The  continuation  of  the  Congress  at  Rastadt,  therefore, 
served  merely  to  gain  time  to  prepare  for  hostilities.  If  the 
Court  of  Vienna  had  flattered  themselves,  that  the  Cisalpine 
Republic  would  form  an  independent  State,they  were  undeceived 
by  the  treaty  of  alliance  with  France  which  that  Republic  was 
obliged  to  accept,  in  spite  of  the  determined  refusal  of  the  Coun- 
cil of  Ancients.  It  was,  in  reality,  a  treaty  of  subjection,  by 
which,  among  other  articles,  it  was  stipulated  that  there  should 
always  be  25,000  French  troops  in  the  Cisalpine  States,  for  the 
support  of  which  they  should  pay  eighteen  millions  per  annum. 

A  tumult  having  happened  at  Rome,  in  which  one  of  the 
French  generals  was  killed,  the  Directory  made  this  a  pretext 
for  invading  the  Ecclesiastical  States.  General  Berthier  pro- 
claimed the  Roman  Republic  (Feb.  15,  1798;)  and  Pope  Pius 


r-F-rvTOD  IX.     A.  D.  1789—1815.  167 

VL  was  carried  captive  to  France  where  he  died,  (Aug.  29, 1799. 'i 

The  Directory,  from  no  just  motive,  excited  a  revolution  m 
Switzerland  ;  and  under  pretence  of  being  invited  by  one  of  the 
parties,  they  sent  troops  into  that  countrj^  (Jan.  26 ;)  overturned 
*.he  existing  order  of  things  ;  and  under  the  title  of  the  Helvetic 
Republic^  they  established  a  government  entirely  subject  oii 
Jiheir  authority  (April  11.)  A  piece  of  imprudence,  committea 
OV"  the  French  ambassador  at  Vienna,  was  the  cause  of  a  popular 
commotion  there  ;  in  consequence  of  which  he  quitted  his  situf*- 
tion.  This  event  made  a  great  r^oise.  It  gave  rise  to  the  cor- 
ferences  which  took  place  at  Seltz  in  Alsace  (April  13^^)  between 
ihe  Ex-Director  Francois  and  Count  De  Cobenzl ;  in  which 
France  and  Austria  tried,  for  the  last  time,  if  it  were  possible  to 
come  to  a  proper  understanding  regarding  their  mutual  interests. 
These  conferences  had  no  other  effect  than  to  convince  the  Court 
of  Vienna,  that  they  must  turn  the  current  of  their  politics  into 
a  new  channel. 

A  French  fleet,  commanded  by  Admiral  Breueix,  sailed  from 
Toulon  (May  19,)  with  General  Bonaparte  and  40,000  men. 
When  they  arrived  off  Malta,  Bonaparte  got  possession  of  that 
island  by  means  of  a  capitulation,  signed  in  name  of  the  order  of 
St.  John  (June  12,)  by  some  of  the  knights  who  had  disclaimed 
all  submission  to  the  Grand  Master  and  the  Assembly  of  the 
States.  From  Malta  the  French  fleet  sailed  with  a  fair  wind 
for  Egypt,  and  Lnded  at  Alexandria  (Jul}^  2,)  to  undertake  the 
conquest  of  that  country  ;  although  France  was  then  at  peace 
with  the  Forte.  The  English  fleet,  however,  under  Admiral 
Nelson,  which  had  gone  in  quest  of  the  French,  joined  them  off 
Alexandria,  and  defeated  them  in  an  action  which  was  fought  in 
the  bay  of  Aboukir  (Aug.  1,)  and  which  lasted  thirty-six  hours. 

Charles  Emanuel  IV.,  King  of  Sardinia,  insulted  in  every 
kind  of  way  by  the  French  generals,  and  by  his  neighbours  the 
Cisalpine  and  Ligurian  Republics,  resolved  to  shelter  himselt 
from  these  annoyances  under  the  protection  of  the  Directory. 
He  had  concluded  an  alliance,  offensive  and  defensive,  with 
France  (April  5,  1797  ;)  but  the  latter  having  demanded  a  new 
pledge  of  his  friendship,  he  concluded  a  convention  at  Milan,  by 
which  the  French  government  granted  him  their  protection  ;  on 
condition  that  he  would  surrender  to  them  the  citadel  of  his  capital. 

The  events  which  we  have  now  detailed  gave  rise  to  a  second 
coalition  against  France,  which  was  entered  into  by  Great  Britain, 
Russia,  Austria,  the  Porte,  and  the  Two  Sicilies.  The  two  first 
of  these  powers  promised  to  support  the  rest ;  Britain  furnishing 
supplies,  and  Russia  auxiliary  troops.  Before  taking  up  arms, 
the  Cabinet  of  Vienna  attempted  to  conciliate  that  of  Berlin, 


168  CHAPTER  X, 

with  the  view  of  compelling  France  to  moderate  some  of  her  claims 
Negotiations  were  accordingly  entered  into  at  Berlin,  at  first  be 
iween  the  two  powers  alone,  and  afterwards  under  the  mediation 
of  the  Emperor  Paul  of  Russia.  But  in  order  to  obtain  a  mutual 
«;o-operation,  it  was  necessary  to  begin  by  establishing  mutual 
confidence.  This  was  impossible,  as  each  of  the  Cabinets  had  its 
own  secret,  which  it  would  not  communicate  to  the  other.  Prus- 
sia had  her  own  treaty  of  the  1st  of  August  1796;  and  Austria 
jier  secret  articles  of  Campo  Formio.  The  circumstance  which 
determined  the  Emperor  Paul  to  take  a  part  in  the  war  agajnst 
France,  was  the  indignation  Avhich  he  felt  at  the  spoliation  of 
the  Knights  of  Malta,  whom  he  had  taken  under  his  protection, 
and  afterwards  accepted  the  office  of  Grand  Master  of  the  Orde:^ 

This  coalition  was  formed  by  treaties  of  alliance  between  the 
several  parties  respectively.  Russia  agreed  to  s^nd  an  arm}-  of 
60,000  men,  under  Suwarow,  to  the  Danube,  and  to  furnish  Prus- 
sia with  45,000,  to  be  paid  by  Great  Britain. 

After  the  revolution  of  the  18th  Fructidor,  the  Executive  Di- 
rectory of  the  French  Republic  had  to  struggle  against  the  gene- 
ral discontent,  as  well  as  against  the  disordered  state  of  the 
finances,  and  the  intrigues  of  the  Jacobins,  whose  influence  the}" 
had  imprudently  augmented,  hoping,  by  their  means,  to  annihi- 
late the  party  of  the  opposition.  That  faction  would  infallibly 
have  affected  a  counter-revolution  in  France,  had  not  the  Direc- 
tory, by  a  stretch  of  arbitrary  power,  annulled  the  elections  of 
1798.  The  want  of  funds,  which  was  always  growing  worse, 
had  retarded  the  renewal  of  the  war ;  but  when  it  broke  out,  the 
Directory  adopted  a  measure  which  Ave  ought  not  to  pass  in  si- 
lence, as  it  has  exercised  a  lasting  influence  on  all  the  States  ol 
Europe,  who  were  obliged  to  follow  the  example.  We  allude  to 
the  law  which  introduced  the  military  conscription  (Sept.  5, 1798,} 
and  which  was  the  work  of  General  Jourdan. 

Tht  Coalition  was  not  yet  consolidated,  and  Austria  had  not 
yet  fin,  =5hed  her  preparations  for  war,  when  the  King  of  the  Two 
Sicilies,  instigated  by  a  party  who  wished  to  urge  the  Cabinet  of 
Vienna  to  greater  despatch,  commenced  hostilities,  by  expelling 
the  French  from  Rome  (Nov.  24.)  That  enterprise  failed  of 
success.  The  Neapolitan  troops,  who  were  commanded  by  a 
foreigner,  General  Baron  de  Mack,  showed  neither  discipline 
nor  courage.  After  this  first  repulse,  the  King  took  shelter  in 
Sicily.  His  capital  became  a  prey  to  the  most  frightful  anarchy. 
Mack,  to  save  his  life,  deserted  to  the  enemy.  The  Lazzaroni 
defended  Naples  against  the  French  army,  and  it  was  not  till 
after  a  battle  of  three  days,  that  Championnet,  who  was  at  their 
head,  succeeded  in  getting  possession  of  the  city :  after  which  ha 


Bonaparte  crossing  the  Alps.     Vol.  2,  p.  174. 


Fall  of  Kosciuszko.     Vol.  2,  p.  194. 


FERIOD  IX.      A.  D.  1789 — 1815.  16^ 

proclaimed  the  Parthenopean  Rcp7iblic  (Jan.  25.)  General  Jou- 
bert  took  possession  of  Turin  ;  and  when  the  new  campaign 
opened,  the  whole  of  Italy  was  in  the  hands  of  the  French. 

The  Executive  Directory  made  these  hostile  preparations  of 
the  King  of  the  Two  Sicilies  a  pretext  for  declaring  war  against 
the  King  of  Sardinia  (Dec.  6,  179S,)  who  was  in  alliance  with 
France.  General  Joubett  having  already  advanced  into  Pied- 
mont, Charles  Emanuel  I  \^.  signed  an  act,  drawn  up  by  General 
Clauzel,  by  which  he  renounced  the  exercise  of  all  power,  and 
commanded  his  subjects  to  obey  the  provisional  government 
which  the  French  were  about  to  establish.  He  afterwards  re- 
tired into  Sardinia,  where  he  protested  against  the  violence  which 
he  had  experienced. 

The  Congress  of  Rastadt  had  continued  their  sittings.  On 
the  6th  December  1798,  the  French  plenipotentiaries  gave  in 
their  ultirrmium  on  the  third  proposition  relative  to  the  mode  of 
carrying  into  execution  the  two  fundamental  articles  agreed  to  ; 
with  a  threat  to  quit  Rastadt  unless  it  was  accepted  within  six 
days.  The  majority  of  the  deputation,  who  were  not  initiated 
into  the  secrets  of  great  cabinets,  and  who  were  importuned  by 
a  crowd  of  princes,  nobles,  and  deputies  under  the  influence 
either  of  interest  or  terror,  accepted  this  ultimatum ;  against 
which  Austria,  Saxony,  and  Hanover  voted.  The  plenipoten- 
tiary of  the  Empire  ratified  it ;  probably  because  the  Court  of 
Vienna,  who  were  on  the  point  of  abrogating  every  thing  that 
had  passed  at  Rastadt,  did  not  think  it  necessary  to  enter  into 
any  discussion  on  that  subject.  This  finished  the  operations  of 
the  Congress.  From  that  moment,  the  French  plenipotentiaries 
did  nothing  but  complain  of  the  march  of  the  Russian  troops, 
who  in  effect  had  penetrated  into  Galicia,  and  were  approaching, 
the  Danube.  The  deputation,  whose  distinctii^e  character  was 
pusilianimity,  confirmed  these  complaints  in  presence  of  the 
Emperor  (Jan.  4,  1799,)  who,  however,  eluded  giving  any  posi- 
tive answer,  until  the  whole  of  his  measures  were  organized. 
A  French  army,  commanded  by  Jourdan,  passed  the  Rhine,  be- 
tween Strasburg  and  Basle.  The  Congi*ess,  nevertheless,  con- 
tinued to  sit  until  ^he  7th  April,  when  it  was  dissolved  by  Count 
Metternich,  who  annulled  all  its  decisions. 

The  28th  of  April  was  a  day  memorable  in  the  annars  oi 
inodern  history.  Some  of  the  Austrian  Hussars,  within  a  quar- 
ter of  a  league  of  Rastadt,  assassinated  the  French  ministers 
/lonnier,  Debry,  and  Roberjot,  who  were  on  their  return  to  Paris. 
rhat  deed  was  not  authorized  by  the  Executive  Directory,  al- 
tliough  it  was  attributed  to  them  because  they  had  art.  ally  turned 
it  to   their  advantage,  by  exciting  the  public  mind  which  had 

VOL.  II.  15 


170  CHAPTER  X. 

already  declared  itself  against  the  war  ;  neither  was  it  author 
ized  by  any  cabinet,  or  commander  of  the  army.  Its  real  au- 
thor has  never  been  officially  made  known. 

The  French  Republic  had  ah'eady  declared  war  against  the 
Emperor  and  the  Grand  Duke  of  Tuscany  (March  12,  1799,) 
without  any  apparent  motive.  But,  before  this  declaration  was 
made,  the  campaign  had  already  opened  in  Switzerland,  where 
General  Massena  had  dislodged  the  Austrians  from  the  country 
of  the  Grisons,  which  they  had  occupied  in  consequence  of  a 
treaty  with  the  Republicans,  concluded  at  Coire  (Oct.  7,  1798.) 
The  Archduke  Charles,  at  the  head  of  the  main  Austrian  army, 
acquitted  himself  gloriously.  He  defeated  Jourdan  in  several 
pitched  battles  at  Pullendorf  and  Stockach  (March  20,  25,)  and 
compelled  the  army  of  the  Danube,  as  it  was  called,  to  repass 
the  Rhine.  The  remains  of  Jourdan's  army  were  then  united 
to  that  of  Massena. 

In  Italy,  while  General  Macdonald,  who  had  succeeded  Cham- 
pionnet  in  the  command,  was  covering  Rome  and  Naples,  Gen- 
eral Gauthier  occupied  Florence.  Sherer,  at  the  head  of  the 
army  of  Italy,  was  defeated  by  Kray  at  Legnago  (March  25,) 
Roco  (30,)  and  Verona  (April  5.)  It  was  at  this  time  that  Su- 
warow  arrived  in  Italy  with  the  Russians,  and  took  the  chief 
command  of  the  combined  army.  Moreau,  who  with  a  noble 
resignation  had  taken  on  himself  the  interim  command  of  the 
French  army  in  its  present  discouraging  circumstances,  was  de- 
feated at  Cassano  (April  27,)  and  retired  to  Alessandria.  It  wa^s 
of  great  importance  for  Suwarow  to  prevent  Macdonald,  who 
had  arrived  at  Naples,  from  joining  Moreau.  But  the  two 
French  generals  manoeuvred  so  dexterously,  that  this  junction 
took  place  ;  although  Macdonald  had  been  attacked  by  Suwa- 
row near  the  Trebia  (June  17,)  where  he  sustained  a  considera- 
ble loss.  The  whole  of  Lombardy  fell  into  the  hands  of  the 
Allies.  Mantua  likewise  capitulated.  Joubert,  who  had  been 
appointed  General  of  the  army  of  Italy,  had  scarcely  arrived 
when  he  offered  battle  to  Suwarow  near  Novi  (Aug.  15  ;)  but 
he  was  slain  near  the  commencement  of  the  action.  Moreau, 
who  had  continued  with  the  army  as  a  volunteer,  could  not  pre- 
vent the  general  rout.  Championnet,  who  succeeded  Joubert, 
was  not  more  fortunate.  Coni,  the  last  place  in  their  possession, 
having  been  taken  (Dec.  3,)  the  French  retired  within  the  Ap- 
penines. 

The  Archduke  Charles  having  marched  into  Switzerland, 
Massena  took  up  a  strong  position  on  the  Aar  and  the  Reuss. 
The  hopes  which  they  had  entertained  of  bringing  over  Prussia 
to  the  coalition  having  entirely  failed,  it  was   agreed  between 


PERIOD  IX,      A.  D.  1789—1815.  17\ 

Great  Britain  and  Russia  (June  29,)  that  the  army  of  45,000 
men  which  the  latter  had  eventually  promised  to  place  at  the  dis- 
posal of  the  King  of  Prussia  if  he  became  a  party  in  the  war, 
should  henceforth  be  employed  against  France  in  Switzerland, 
Accordingly  these  troops,  who  were  commanded  by  Prince  Kor- 
sakoff, having  arrived  on  the  Limmat,  the  Archduke  joined  to 
them  30,000  Austrians  ;  while  with  the  rest  of  his  troops  he 
marched  towards  the  Rhine,  where  a  new  French  army  had 
occupied  Heidelberg  and  Manheim.  The  Archduke  compelled 
them  to  repass  the  river,  and  took  Manheim  by  assault  (Sept.  18.) 

After  the  battle  of  Novi,  Suwarow  quitted  Italy  with  the 
Russians  whose  number  was  now  reduced  to  24,000  men,  to 
march  on  the  Limmat,  and  take  the  command  of  the  allied  army 
in  Switzerland.  Massena,  who  was  anxious  to  prevent  this 
junction,  attacked  Korsakoff,  and  defeated  him  near  Zurich  (Sept. 
24;)  which  obliged  him  to  evacuate  Switzerland.  Suwarow, 
whose  march  across  the  Alps  had  now  become  very  dangerous, 
accomplished  it  nevertheless  with  boldness  and  celerity ;  and 
although  he  had  to  encounter  Lect  arbe  who  wished  to  intercept 
him,  and  afterwards  Massena  who  was  in  pursuit  of  him,  he 
crossed  the  small  cantons  of  the  Grisons,  and  effected  a  union 
with  the  remains  of  Korsakoff 's  army. 

The  Roman  and  Parthenopean  Republics  had  fallen  to  pieces 
after  the  departure  of  Macdonald.  Ancona,  where  he  had  left 
a  body  of  troops,  did  not  surrender  until  the  29th  of  November. 
The  combined  fleets  of  the  Turks  and  Russians,  about  the  end 
of  the  year  1798,  had  taken  possession  of  the  French  islands 
that  had  formerly  belonged  to  the  Venetians.  Corfu  held  out  till 
the  1st  of  March  1799.  The  Archduke  Charles  having  advanced 
on  Switzerland  after  the  defeat  of  Korsakoff,  Lecourbe,  who  had 
been  called  to  the  command  of  the  army  of  Alsace,  passed  the 
Rhine  ;  but  he  was  soon  after  compelled  to  return  to  the  left 
bank  of  that  river. 

In  virtue  of  a  convention  which  was  concluded  at  St.  Peters- 
burg (June  22,)  the  Emperor  Paul,  in  addition  to  the  105,000 
men  which  he  had  already  despatched,  engaged  to  furnish  17,500 
more.  These  with  12,000  English,  under  the  command  of  the 
Duke  of  York,  attempted  to  make  a  descent  on  Holland,  and 
landed  at  Helder.  This  expedition  proved  a  total  failure.  The 
Duke  of  York,  after  having  been  worsted  in  several  engage- 
ments with  General  Brune,  evacuated  the  country,  in  conse- 
quence of  a  capitulation  signed  at  Alkmaar  (Oct.  18,  1799.) 
These  disasters  were  but  feebly  compensated  by  the  taking  of 
Surinam  (Aug.  16,)  the  last  of  the  Dutch  colonies  which  fell 
into  the  hands  of  the  English. 


172  CHAPTER  X. 

While  these  events  were  transacting  in  Europe,  Bonaparte 
had  subdued  the  greater  part  of  Egypt ;  but  he  was  less  suc- 
cessful in  the  expedition  which  he  undertook  against  Syria. 
Being  obliged  to  raise  the  siege  of  Acre  (May  19,)  after  sus- 
taining considerable  losses,  he  returned  to  Egypi  with  the  feeble 
remains  of  his  army.  Shortly  after  (July  15,)  a  Turkish  fleet 
appeared  off  Aboukir,  and  landed  a  body  of  troops,  who  took 
possession  of  that  fort.  Bonaparte  directed  his  march  against 
them,  beat  them,  and  almost  totally  annihilated  them  (July  25;) 
but  being  displeased  at  the  Directory,  who  had  left  him  without 
support,  and  having  heard  of  their  disorganization,  he  resolved 
to  return  to  Europe.  He  embarked  secretly  (Aug.  23,)  and 
landed  at  Frejus  on  the  coast  of  Provence  (Oct.  9,  1799.) 

At  the  time  of  his  arrival,  France  was  in  a  state  of  the  most 
violent  commotion.  The  Council  of  Five  Hundred  was  become 
more  and  more  Jacobinical,  in  consequence  of  new  elections. 
Sieyes,  Gohier,  Roger  Ducos,  and  Moulins,  with  Barras,  Direc- 
tor of  the  Ancients,  formed  the  government.  The  revolutionary 
measures  which  were  adopted  by  the  Council,  seemed  a  pre- 
lude to  the  return  of  Terror.  Such  was  the  law  which  author- 
ized the  Directory  to  take  hostages  among  the  relations  of  the 
emigrants  (July  12;)  and  the  loan  of  a  hundred  millions,  which 
was  decreed  (Aug.  6.) 

In  the  west,  the  Chouans  had  organized  a  new  insurrection 
under  the  conduct  of  George  Cadoudal  and  the  Counts  de  Frot- 
te,  D'Autichamp,  and  de  Bourmont.  Disturbances  had  broken 
out  in  other  provinces  ;  the  government  had  fallen  into  contempt ; 
a  general  restlessness  had  taken  possession  of  the  public  mind. 
Barras  and  Sieyes  were  perfectly  conscious  that  this  state  of 
things  could  not  continue.  Each  of  them,  separately,  had  con- 
trived the  plan  of  a  new  revolution  ;  and  each  of  them  endeav- 
oured to  make  a  partisan  of  General  Bonaparte,  who  had  just 
arrived  in  Paris,  and  on  whom  the  hopes  of  France  seemed  at 
that  time  to  depend.  The  General  deceived  Barras,  and  entered 
into  a  conspiracy  with  Sieyes  and  the  more  powerful  mem- 
bers of  the  Council  of  Ancients.  On  the  ISth  Brumaire  (Nov. 
9,  1799,)  the  Council  nominated  Bonaparte  commandant  of  the 
troops  ;  abolished  the  Directory ;  and  ordered  the  Legislative 
Assembly  to  be  transferred  to  St.  Cloud.  The  meeting  which 
took  place  next  day  was  a  scene  of  great  turbulence.  Bonaparte 
ineffectually  attempted  to  defend  himself  in  the  Council  of  Five 
Hundred,  when  the  firmness  of  his  brother  Lucien  and  the  gren- 
adiers of  the  guard  alone  secured  his  safety.  The  Council  was 
dissolved,  and  the  constitution  of  the  year  Three  abolished  I'Nov. 
11.)     A  provisional  government  was  established,  consisting  of 


PERIOD  IX.     A,  D.  1789—1815.  173 

Sieves,  Roger  Ducos,  and  Bonaparte.  A  legislative  commission 
of  twenty-five  members  were  charged  to  draw  up  the  plan  of  a 
new  constitution. 

The  new  constitution  was  announced  on  the  22d  of  Frimaire, 
of  the  year  Eight  (13th  Dec.  1799.)  The  republican»forms  were 
preserved  ;  and  the  government,  in  appearance,  was  intrusted  to 
a  Council  of  three  persons,  appointed  for  ten  years,  and  decorated 
with  the  title  of  Consuls,  viz.  Bonaparte,  Cambaceres,  and  Le 
Brun  ;  but  in  reality  to  the  first  only,  on  whom  they  conferred  a 
power  truly  monarchical.  The  other  constituted  bodies  were  a 
Conservative  Senate,  contrived  by  Sieyes,  to  be  the  guardian  of 
the  public  liberties ;  a  Tribunal  of  one  hundred  members,  whose 
business  it  was  to  discuss  such  forms  of  law  as  the  government 
laid  before  them  ;  and  a  Legislative  Body  of  three  hundred 
members,  who  gave  their  vote  without  any  previous  debate. 
Bonaparte  seized  the  reins  of  government  with  a  firm  hand.  He 
abrogated  several  of  the  revolutionary  laws,  amalgamated  its 
difTerent  parts  into  a  system,  and  by  degrees  organized  the  most 
complete  despotism.  He  consolidated  his  power  by  quashing 
the  insurrection  in  the  West.  By  his  orders,  Generals  Brune 
and  Hedouville  concluded  a  peace  (Jan.  18,  1800,)  first  with  the 
Vendeans  at  Montfaugon,  and  afterwards  with  the  Chouans.  He 
gave  a  most  striking  example  of  perfidy,  by  causing  the  brave 
Frotte  to  be  shot  a  few  days  after.  But  he  conciliated  the  af- 
fection of  his  subjects  by  the  restoration  of  religion,  which  he 
established  by  means  of  a  Concordat  with  the  Court  of  Rome, 
(July  15,  1801.) 

Bonaparte  was  no  sooner  placed  at  the  head  of  the  govern- 
ment, than  he  proposed  to  make  peace  with  England,  by  means 
of  a  letter  (Dec.  26,  1799,)  not  written,  according  to  etiquette,  by 
one  of  his  ministers  to  the  Secretary  of  State  for  Foreign  Af- 
fairs, but  in  his  own  hand,  and  addressed  to  King  George  III., 
whom  he  complimented  for  his  patriotic  virtues.  He  stated  the 
necessity  for  peace  ;  and  trusted,  that  two  nations  so  enlightened 
as  France  and  Great  Britain,  would  no  longer  be  actuated  by 
false  ideas  of  glory  and  greatness.  This  step,  made  in  so  un- 
usual a  form,  could  not  possibly  have  a  successful  result,  espe- 
cially as  Mr.  Pitt  was  determined  to  employ  all  the  resources  of 
England  to  overthrow  the  revolutionary  despotism  which  the 
First  Consul  was  endeavouring  to  establish  in  France.  That 
great  statesman  endeavoured,  by  the  treaties  of  subsidy  which 
we  have  already  mentioned,  to  repair  the  loss  which  the  coalition 
had  just  suffered  by  the  retirement  of  Paifl  I.,  who  being  morti- 
fied with  the  bad  success  of  the  Russian  arms,  which  he  ascribed 

VOL.  u.  15  "^ 


174  CHAPTER  X. 

to  the  allies  themselves,  had  recalled  his  troops  at  the  beginning 
of  the  year  ISOO. 

General  Melas,  who  commanded  the  Austrians  in  Italy,  open- 
ed the  campaign  of  1800  in  the  most  splendid  manner.  In  con- 
sequence of  the  victory  which  he  gained  over  Massena  at  Voltri 
(April  10,)  the  latter  was  obliged  to  throw  himself  into  Genoa, 
where  he  sustained  a  siege  of  six  weeks  with  great  courage. 
Melas  made  himself  master  of  Nice  (May  11,)  and  Souchet 
passed  the  Var  on  his  march  to  Provence.  But,  in  a  short  time, 
Bonaparte,  at  the  head  of  a  new  army  which  collected  at  Dijon, 
passed  the  Alps,  and  took  possession  of  Milan  (June  2 ;)  while 
Melas  was  not  yet  aware  that  his  army  was  in  existence.  For- 
tunately for  the  latter,  Massena  was  obliged  to  surrender  Genoa 
at  that  very  time,  (June  5,)  which  placed  the  corps  of  General 
Ott  at  his  disposal.  He  had  found  it  difficult,  with  his  small 
garrison,  to  preserve  order  among  the  inhabitants,  of  whom 
15,000  are  said  to  have  perished  by  famine  or  disease  during 
the  blockade.  General  Ott  was  defeated  by  Berthierat  Monte- 
bello  (June  9.)  Melas  himself  engaged  General  Bonaparte  al 
Marengo  (June  14.)  Victory  was  already  within  his  grasp, 
when  the  arrival  of  the  brave  Desaix  with  his  division,  disap- 
pointed him  of  the  triumph.  The  defeat  had  a  most  discourag- 
ing effect  on  General  Melas,  and  cost  Austria  the  whole  of 
Lombardy.  A  truce  which  was  concluded  at  Alessandria  (June 
16,)  put  Bonaparte  in  possession  of  that  town  ;  as  well  as  of 
Tortona,  Turin,  Placentia,  Coni,  Genoa,  &c.  The  Austrians 
retired  beyond  the  Mincio. 

Moreau,  at  the  head  of  a  French  army,  had  passed  the  Rhine 
(April  25,)  and  defeated  Kray  in  several  engagements.  The 
Austrians  then  retired  within  the  Upper  Palatinate.  Moreau 
had  already  made  himself  master  of  Munich,  when  he  receiveo 
the  news  of  the  truce  at  Alessandria.  He  then  concluded  an 
armistice  at  Parsdorf  (July  15.)  The  Count  St.  Julien,  who 
had  been  sent  by  the  Emperor  Francis  II.  to  Paris,  having" 
signed  the  preliminaries  of  peace  without  sufficient  authority, 
the  Court  of  Vienna  refused  to  ratify  them,  as  they  had  engaged 
not  to  make  peace  without  the  consent  of  England.  Hostilitiea 
were  to  recommence  in  Germany  in  the  month  of  September ; 
but  the  Archduke  John,  who  commanded  the  Austrian  army  in 
Bavaria,  having  requested  that  the  armistice  should  be  prolonged, 
General  Moreau  consented,  on  condition  that  Philipsburg,  Ulm, 
and  Ingolstadt,  should  be  given  up  to  him.  This  arrangement 
was  signed  at  Hohenlinden  (Sept.  20,)  and  France  immediately 
demolished  the  fortifications  of  these  two  places.  Hostihties 
having  recommenced  about  the  end  of  November,  General  Mo- 


PERIOD  IX.     A.  D.  1789—1815.  175 

reau  defeated  the  army  of  the  Archduke  John,  at  the  memorable 
battle  of  Hohenlinden  (Dec.  3  ;)  after  which  he  marched  in  all 
haste  on  Vienna.  Austria  being  released  from  her  engagements 
by  the  Cabinet  of  London,  then  declared  that  she  was  determined 
to  make  peace,  whatever  might  be  the  resolutions  of  England; 
on  which  a  new  armistice  was  concluded  at  Steyr  (Dec.  25.) 
Braunau  and  Wurtzburg  were  delivered  up  to  the  French. 

General  Brune,  who  commanded  in  Italy,  renewed  the  truce 
of  Alessandria  by  the  convention  of  Castiglione  (Sept.  29,)  and 
thus  gained  time  to  take  possession  of  Tuscany,  which  they  had 
forgot  to  include  in  the  truce.  Being  reinforced  by  the  army  of 
Macdonald,  who  had  arrived  in  Lombardy,  he  passed  the  Brenta ; 
after  traversing,  by  a  perilous  march,  the  lofty  mountain  of  Splu- 
gen.  In  virtue  of  a  new  truce,  signed  at  Treviso,  the  French 
obtained  the  recovery  of  Peschiera,  the  forts  of  Verona,  Legnago, 
Fermo,  and  Ancona. 

Meantime,  negotiations  for  peace  had  been  entered  into  at 
Luneville,  between  Joseph  Bonaparte  and  Count  Louis  de 
Cobenzl.  The  First  Consul  having  refused  to  ratify  the  armis- 
tice of  Treviso,  because  it  had  left  Mantua  in  the  hands  of  the 
Austrians,  the  Imperial  plenipotentiary  at  Luneville  signed  an 
additional  convention,  by  which  that  place  was  delivered  over  to 
the  French.  Peace  between  Austria  and  France  was  signed  a 
few  days  after  (Feb.  9 ;)  and  Francis  II.,  at  the  same  time,  made 
stipulations  for  the  Empire.  He  ceded  the  Belgic  provinces, 
the  county  of  Falkenstein  and  Frickthal.  In  Italy,  the  frontier 
line  between  Austria  and  the  Cisalpine  Republic  was  traced,  so 
that  the  Adige  should  separate  the  two  States,  and  the  cities  of 
Verona  and  Porto  Legnago  should  be  divided  between  them. 
The  other  conditions  were,  that  the  Grand  Duke  of  Modena 
should  have  Brisgau  in  exchange  for  his  dutchy ;  that  the  Grand 
Duke  of  Tuscany  should  renounce  his  grand  dutchy,  and  receive 
a  free  and  competent  indemnity  in  Germany  ;  that  the  Empire 
should  give  up  all  the  left  bank  of  the  Rhine ;  that  the  hereditary 
princes,  who  lost  their  territories  in  consequence  of  these  ces- 
sions, should  receive  compensation  from  the  Empire  ;  and  la.'^V, 
that  the  Germanic  Body  should  ratify  the  peace  within  the  spa^^ 
of  thirty  days.  By  a  secret  article,  Saltzburg,  Berchtolsgaden, 
Passau,  the  bishopric  and  city  of  Augsburg,  Kempten,  and  twelve 
other  immediate  abbeys,  besides  nineteen  Imperial  cities  in 
Swabia,  including  Ulni  and  Augsburg,  were  secured  to  the 
Grand  Duke  of  Tuscany.  The  Empire  showed  great  anxiety 
to  ratify  this  peace,  Avhich  was  the  precursor  of  its  annihilation 

The  English  had  compelled  General  Vaubois  to  surrender  the 
Tsle  of  Malta.    After  the  flight  of  Bonaparte  from  Egypt,  Kleber 


170  CHAPTER  X. 

hud  taken  the  command  of  the  Frencli  army,  which  was  then 
reduced  to  12,000  men.  A  convention  was  concluded  at  El 
Arisch  with  the  Grand  Vizier  who  had  arrived  from  Syria  at 
the  head  of  a  formidable  army,  by  which  the  French  General 
engaged  to  evacuate  the  country.  The  English  government 
having  refused  to  ratify  this  treaty,  unless  Kleber  would  surren- 
der himself  prisoner  of  war,  that  General  immediately  attacked 
the  Grand  Vizier,  and  defeated  him  at  El  Hanka  (March  20  ;) 
after  which  he  again  subdued  Cairo,  which  had  raised  the  stand- 
ard of  revolt.  The  English  Government  were  willing  to  ratify 
the  convention  of  the  24th  January  ;  but  General  Menou  having 
succeeded  Kleber  who  had  fallen  by  the  dagger  of  a  Turkish 
fanatic,  was  determined  to  maintain  himself  in  Egypt,  in  spite 
of  an  evident  impossibility.  Sir  Ralph  Abercromby,  the  Eng- 
lish commander,  who  arrived  with  a  British  force,  effected  his 
landing  at  Aboukir  (March  8,  1801.)  Menou  was  defeated  in 
the  battle  of  Rahmanieh,  near  Alexandria  (March  21,)  which 
cost  General  Abercromby  his  life.  But  the  French  soon  saw 
themselves  assailed  on  all  hands  by  the  Turks  and  the  English, 
who  had  been  recalled  from  the  East  Indies,  and  had  disem- 
barked on  the  shores  of  the  Red  Sea.  Qeneral  Belliard,  who 
had  the  command  at  Cairo,  concluded  a  capitulation  (June  27,) 
in  virtue  of  which  he  was  sent  back  to  France  with  the  troops 
under  his  orders.  Menou  found  himself  obliged  to  follow  his 
example,  and  capitulated  at  Alexandria  to  General  Hutchinson 
(Aug.  30,)  who  consented  to  the  safe  conveyance  of  the  French 
troops  to  their  native  country.  Thus  ended  an  expedition, 
which,  had  it  proved  successful,  must  have  become  fatal  to  the 
British  Empire  in  India,  and  given  a  new  direction  to  the  com- 
merce of  the  world. 

Various  treaties  were  concluded  between  the  peace  of  Lune- 
ville  and  that  of  Amiens,  which  put  an  entire  end  to  the  war. 
(1.)  General  Murat,  who  commanded  the  army  in  Italy,  having 
shown  some  disposition  to  carry  the  war  into  the  kingdom  of 
Naples,  Ferdinand  IV.  concluded  an  armistice  at  Foligno  (Feb. 
IS,)  which  he  afterwards  converted  into  a  treaty  of  peace  at  Flo- 
rence. He  gave  up  the  State  of  Presidii,  and  his  share  of  the 
island  of  Elba  and  of  the  principality  of  Piombino.  By  a  secret 
article,  he  agreed  that  16,000  French  troops  should  occupy  the 
peninsula  of  Otranto  and  part  of  Abruzzo,  until  the  conclusion 
of  peace  with  England  and  the  Porte.  (2.)  Portugal,  since  the 
year  1797,  had  wished  to  withdraw  from  the  first  coaJition,  and 
even  concluded  a  peace  with  the  Executive  Directory  at  Paris 
(Aug.  10  ;)  but  the  English  squadron  of  Admiral  St.  Vincent 
having  entered  the  Tagus,  the  Queen  refused  to  ratify  that 


PERIOD  IX.     A.  D.  1789—1815.  177 

treaty.  Portugal  thus  continued  at  war  with  France  until  1801. 
The  French  army,  which  was  already  in  Spain,  having  shown 
some  disposition  to  enter  Portugal,  peace  was  concluded  at  Ma- 
drid between  Lucien  Bonaparte  and  M.  Freire  (Sept.  29,)  the 
ministers  of  the  two  States  at  the  Court  of  Spain.  Portugal 
shut  her  ports  against  the  English,  and  regulated  the  frontiers 
of  Guiana,  so  as  to  prove  advantageous  to  France.  (3.)  In  Rus- 
sia Bonaparte  had  succeeded  to  a  certain  extent  in  conciliating 
the  good  will  of  the  Emperor  Paul.  Nevertheless,  at  the  death 
of  that  prince  (Oct.  8,  1801,)  there  existed  no  treaty  of  peace 
between  Russia  and  France.  A  treaty,  however,  was  signed 
at  Paris  in  the  reign  of  Alexander,  by  Count  Markofif  and  Tal- 
leyrand (Oct.  11,)  and  followed  by  a  very  important  special  con- 
vention by  which,  among  other  things,  it  was  agreed  :  That  the 
two  governments  should  form  a  mutual  agreement,  as  to  the 
principles  to  be  followed  with  respect  to  indemnifications  in 
Germany  ;  as  well  as  to  determine  respecting  those  in  Italy, 
and  to  maintain  a  just  equilibrium  between  the  Houses  of  Aus- 
tria and  Brandeburg  :  That  France  should  accept  the  mediation 
of  Prussia,  for  the  pacification  with  the  Porte  :  That  the  inte- 
grality of  the  kingdom  of  the  Two  Sicilies  should  be  maintained, 
according  to  the  treaty  of  the  28th  March,  1801 ;  and  that  the 
French  troops  should  evacuate  the  country  as  soon  as  the  fate 
of  Egj'pt  was  decided  :  That  a  friendly  disposition  should  be 
shown  to  the  interests  of  the  King  of  Sardinia;  and  that  the 
Elector  of  Bavaria  and  the  Duke  of  Wurtemberg  should  be  com- 
pensated for  their  losses,  by  a  full  indemnity  in  Germany.  (4.) 
Immediately  after  General  Menon  had  signed  the  capitulation 
of  Alexandria,  the  preliminaries  of  peace  between  France  and 
the  Porte  were  concluded  at  Paris  (Oct.  9  ;)  but  they  were  not 
confirmed  into  a  definitive  peace,  until  after  the  preliminaries 
were  signed  at  London  (June  25,  1802.)  The  free  navigation 
of  the  Black  Sea  was  secured  to  the  French  flag. 

When  Mr.  Pitt  had  quitted  the  English  ministry,  France  and 
England  came  to  terms  of  better  accommodation.  The  first  ad- 
vances were  made  on  the  side  of  the  latter  power.  The  preli- 
minaries were  signed  at  London,  between  Lord  Hawkesbury 
and  M.  Otio  ;  including  their  respective  allies  (Oct.  1,  1801.) 
Of  all  her  conquests.  Great  Britain  was  to  retain  only  the  Island 
of  Trinidad,  and  the  Dutch  possessions  in  Ceylon.  Malta  was 
to  be  restored  to  the  Knights  of  St.  John,  under  the  protection 
of  a  third  power  ;  and  Egypt  was  to  belong  to  the  Porte.  The 
French  troops  were  to  abandon  the  kingdom  of  Naples,  and  the 
English  to  quit  Porto  Ferrajo.  France  was  to  acknowledge 
the  Republic  of  the  Seven  Islands,  which  w^as  composed  of  Corfu 
and  the  si  x  other  islands  formerly  belonging  to  the  Venetians 


178  CHAPTER  X. 

For  carrying  these  preliminaries  into  execution,  a  Congress 
was  opened  at  Amiens,  where  Joseph  Bonaparte  appeared  for 
France,  Lord  Cornwallis  for  England,  the  Chevalier  Azara  for 
Spain,  and  M.  Schimmelpenninck  for  the  Batavian  Kepublic. 
Some  unexpected  difficulties  arose  with  regard  to  Malta,  as  Great 
Britain  had  repented  of  having  given  it  up  in  the  preliminary 
treaty.  They  found  means,  however,  to  remove  these  obstacles  ; 
and  the  peace  of  Amiens  was  finally  signed  after  a  negotiation 
of  six  months  (March  27,  1802.) 

We  shall  only  take  notice  here  in  what  respects  these  articles 
differed  from  the  preliminaries.  With  regard  to  the  stipulation 
respecting  the  surrender  of  Malta  to  the  Knights  of  St.  John, 
several  modifications  were  added,  viz.  as  to  the  election  of  a  new 
Grand  Master;  the  suppression  of  the  French  and  English 
Langues^  or  class  of  Knights  ;  the  institution  of  a  Maltese  Langue; 
the  time  for  its  evacuation ;  and  the  future  appointment  of  the 
garrison.  Finally,  it  was  said  in  the  treaty,  that  the  indepen- 
dence of  that  island  and  its  present  arrangement,  were  placed 
under  the  guaranty  of  France,  Great  Britain,  Austria,  Spain, 
Russia  and  Prussia.  It  may  be  mentioned,  that  Russia  and 
Prussia  declined  to  undertake  that  guaranty,  unless  certain 
modifications  were  added.  This  refusal  furnished  England  with 
a  pretext  for  refusing  to  part  with  that  island ;  and  the  war,  as 
we  shall  soon  find,  was  recommenced  rather  than  give  up  that 
important  possession. 

One  article  of  the  treaty  of  Amiens  having  promised  the  Prince 
of  Orange  a  compensation  for  the  losses  he  had  sustained  in  the 
late  Republic  of  the  United  Provinces,  both  in  private  property 
and  expenses,  another  convention  was  signed  at  Amiens  between 
France  and  the  Batavian  States,  importing  that  that  compensa- 
tion should  in  no  case  fall  to  the  charge  of  the  latter. 

There  is  one  essential  observation  which  we  must  make  on 
the  peace  of  Amiens.  Contrary  to  the  general  practice,  the  for- 
mer treaties  between  France  and  Great  Britain  were  not  renewed 
by  that  of  Amiens.  It  is  not  difficult  to  perceive  the  cause  of 
this  silence.  At  the  time  when  the  peace  of  Utrecht  was  con- 
cluded. Great  Britain  had  an  interest  in  having  the  principle  ot 
free  commerce  for  neutral  States  held  sacred  ;  and  she  had  con- 
sequently announced  it  in  the  treaty  of  navigation  and  commerce, 
which  was  concluded  in  1713.  All  the  following  treaties,  until 
that  of  1783  inclusive,  having  renewed  the  articles  of  Utrecht, 
the  silence  on  this  subject  at  Amiens  placed  Great  Britain,  in 
this  respect,  on  the  footing  of  a  common  right,  which,  according 
to  the  system  of  the  English,  would  not  have  been  favourable  to 
the  principle  of  a  free  trade, — a  doctrine  which  it  was  for  their 


PERIOD  IX.     A.  D.  17S9— 1815,  179 

\iiterest  to  suppress,  since  they  had  then  the  command  of  the  sea. 
We  have  now  brought  down  the  history  of  the  French  Revo- 
lution, from  its  commencement  to  the  year  1802,  when  the 
French  power  began  to  preponderate  in  Europe.  The  influ- 
ence of  the  Republic  was  enormously  great.  The  Netherlands 
and  a  flourishing  portion  of  Germany,  as  well  as  Geneva,  Sa- 
voy, and  Piedmont,  were  incorporated  with  the  territories  which 
had  been  governed  by  Louis  XVI.  The  Dutch  and  the  Cisal- 
pine States,  including  the  Milanois,  a  considerable  part  of  the 
Venetian  territories,  the  dutchies  of  Mantua,  Modena  and  Par- 
ma, besides  some  of  the  Ecclesiastical  provinces,  had  bowed  their 
neck  to  the  yoke  of  the  First  Consul.  The  Swiss,  enslaved  by 
the  Directory,  had  not  been  able  to  recover  their  ancient  inde- 
pendence. Tuscany  and  the  Ligurian  Republic  durst  not  pre- 
sume to  dispute  the  will  of  the  conqueror  ;  while  Spain,  forget- 
ful of  her  ancient  dignity,  was  reduced  to  a  state  of  subservient 
and  degraded  alliance.  It  will  be  now  necessary,  according  to 
the  plan  of  this  work,  that  we  take  a  survey  of  the  more  remark- 
able events  which  happened  in  the  course  of  the  preceding  thir- 
teen years,  in  the  other  States  of  Europe. 

Portugal  had  been  a  co-partner  in  the  first  coalition  against 
France,  and  had  furnished  a  body  of  6000  troops  to  Spain,  and 
some  ships  of  war  to  England.  We  have  already  related  how 
Mary  I.  was  prevented  from  disengaging  herself  from  the  treaty 
of  1797.  The  Prince  of  Brazil,  who  had  assumed  the  regency 
(July  15,  1799)  in  consequence  of  the  infirnl  state  of  his  mother's 
health,  took  a  more  decided  part  in  the  second  coalition,  by  sign- 
ing an  alliance  with  Russia  (Sept.  28.)  This  alliance  drew  him 
into  a  war  with  Spain.  The  Duke  of  Alcudia,  usually  styled 
the  Prince  of  Peace,  seized  several  cities  in  Portugal  without 
much  difiiculty  ;  as  her  army  was  in  as  bad  condition  as  her  fi- 
nances. A  peace  was  speedily  concluded  at  Badajos  (June  6, 
1801.)  Portugal  agreed  to  shut  her  ports  against  English  ves- 
sels ;  and  ceded  to  Spain  Olivenga,  and  the  places  situated  on 
the  Guadiana.  The  engagement  respecting  English  vessels  was 
renewed  by  the  peace  of  Madrid  (Sept.  29,)  which  reconciled 
Portugal  with  France. 

In  Spain,  Charles  IV.  had  succeeded  his  father  Charles  III. 
(Dec.  13,  1788;)  Philip,  the  eldest  son,  having  been  declared 
incapable  of  reigning,  on  account  of  his  deficiency  of  intellect. 
That  prince,  who  had  no  pleasure  but  in  the  chase,  gave  himself 
up  entirely  to  that  amusement.  He  was  the  jest  of  the  Queen 
and  her  favourites,  to  whom  he  abandoned  the  cares  of  govern- 
ment. In  1790  a  difference  which  had  arisen  with  England 
re^ppcting  the  right  of  property  to  Nootka  Sound  in  North  Am.eri- 


Death  of  Prince  Poniatowski  in  passing  the  Elster. 
Vol.  2.,  p..  273.. 


Polytechnic  Scholars  joining  the  people.     Vol  2  p.  32.4. 


PERIOD  IX.      A.  D.  17S9— 1815.  181 

isiana  to  Bonaparte  ;  and  eventually  the  State  of  Parma  (Octo- 
ber 1,  1800.)  She  also  surrendered  to  him  five  ships  of  the  line, 
besides  a  considerable  sum  of  money  which  she  paid  him ;  and 
all  this  on  the  faith  of  his  promising  to  procure  the  Grand  Dutchy 
of  Tuscany,  with  the  title  of  Royalty,  to  the  King's  son-in-law, 
the  Infant  of  Parma.  These  stipulations  were  more  clearly 
established  by  the  treaty  v/hich  Lucien  Bonaparte  and  the  Prince 
of  Peace  afterwards  signed  at  Madrid  (March  21,  1801.)  The 
peace  of  Amiens  cost  Spain  no  other  sacrifice  than  the  Island  of 
Trinidad,  which  she  was  obliged  to  abandon  to  England ;  en- 
tirely on  the  decision  of  Bonaparte,  who  did  not  even  ask  the 
consent  of  Charles  IV".  Spain  had  lost  all  sort  of  respect  or 
consideration,  both  from  the  universal  and  contemptible  weak- 
ness of  her  government,  and  because  she  had  voluntarily  placed 
herself  under  dependence  to  France. 

From  the  very  commencement  of  this  period.  Great  Britain 
had  been  preserved  from  the  influence  of  the  revolutionary  prin- 
ciples, which  had  a  great  many  partisans  in  that  kingdom,  by 
the  firmness  of  her  Prime  Minister,  William  Pitt,  and  the  splen- 
did eloquence  of  Edmund  Burke,  a  member  of  the  House  of 
Commons.  Pitt  consolidated  the  system  of  finance,  by  extend- 
ing the  sinking  fund,  which  he  had  created  in  1786.  He  gave 
vigour  to  the  government,  by  obtaining  the  suspension  of  the  Ha- 
belts  Corpus  Act ;  and  by  means  of  the  Alien  Bill  (Jan.  4, 1793,) 
which  allowed  the  magistrate  an  extensive  authority  in  the  sur- 
veillance of  foreigners.  The  greatest  number  of  malcontents 
appeared  in  Ireland,  and  these  consisted  chiefly  of  Catholics  ; 
although  an  act,  passed  in  1793,  had  rendered  the  Catholics 
eligible  to  almost  all  official  employments.  That  island  never- 
theless was  the  theatre  of  several  conspiracies,  the  design  ui 
which  was  to  render  it  independent.  Their  leaders  acted  in 
unison  with  the  French,  who  m.ade  attempts  at  difllerent  times 
to  eftect  a  landing  in  that  country.  Fifteen  thousand  troops,  ac- 
companied by  eighteen  sail  of  the  line,  embarked  for  that  pur- 
pose from  Brest  harbour  in  the  month  of  December.  But  thii- 
formidable  armament  had  scarcely  put  \o  sea,  when  they  were 
overtaken  by  a  storm.  Eight  of  these  vessels  reached  the  Irish 
coast,  and  appeared  ofl"  Ban  tray  Bay ;  but  they  were  forced  from 
that  station  by  another  tempest,  when  they  returned  to  France 
with  the  loss  of  two  ships  of  the  line,  some  frigates  having  nar- 
rowly escaped  falling  in  with  two  squadrons  of  the  English 
navy. 

At  length,  as  a  remedy  for  this  political  mischief,  the  uaion  of 
Ireland  with  Great  Britain  was  effected,  so  that  both  kingdoms 
should  have  one  and  the  same  Parliament ;  and  George  III.  as- 

voL.  n.  16 


182  CHAPTER   X. 

sumed  the  title  of  King  of  the  United  Kingdom  of  Great  Britain 
and  Ireland  (July  2,  1800.) 

Great  Britain  was  the  moving  principle  of  the  two  first  coali- 
tions against  France,  although  she  fought  rather  with  money 
than  with  troops.  She  succeeded  in  ruining  the  marine  and 
the  commerce  of  both  France  and  Spain  ;  and  obtained  the  com- 
plete command  of  the  sea.  A  short  time  before  the  death  of 
Paul  I.,  she  was  involved  in  a  war  with  the  powers  of  the  North. 
The  resentment  of  that  Prince  against  the  Cabinet  of  London, 
for  refusing  to  put  him  in  possession  of  Malta,  which  the  English 
troops  had  seized,  was  the  true  cause  of  hostilities  ;  although  a 
litigated  question  of  public  right  was  made  the  pretext.  The 
point  at  issue  was,  whether  the  convoy  granted  to  the  merchant 
ships  of  neutral  states  by  their  sovereign,  protected  them  from 
being  searched  by  those  of  the  belligerent  powers,  or  not.  Den- 
mark, with  whom  the  discussion  first  arose,  maintained  the  affir- 
mative, and  England  the  negative ;  although  it  was  not  till  the 
end  of  the  year  1799  that  she  maintained  this  doctrine.  At 
that  time  there  had  been  some  misunderstanding  between  Ad- 
miral Keith,  the  commander  of  the  British  forces  in  the  Medi- 
terranean, and  Captain  Van  Dockum,  who  was  convoying  a  fleet 
of  Danish  merchantmen.  In  the  month  of  July  following,  the 
Danish  frigate  La  Freya,  which  had  attempted  to  defend  her 
convoy  against  a  search  of  the  English  cruisers,  was  taken  and 
carried  into  the  Downs. 

These  acts  of  violence  gave  rise  to  a  very  warm  discussion 
between  the  Courts  of  London  and  Copenhagen.  The  formei 
having  sent  a  fleet  to  the  Sound,  commanded  by  Admiral  Dick- 
son, Denmark  was  obliged  to  yield  to  the  tempest,  but  in  a  man- 
ner very  honourable.  By  a  convention  which  was  signed  at 
Copenhagen  (Aug.  29,  1800,)  the  decision  of  (he  question  was 
remitted  for  further  discussion.  The  English  Government  re- 
leased the  Freya,  and  the  King  of  Denmark  promised  to  suspend 
the  convoys. 

This  accommodation  did  not  meet  with  the  approval  of  the 
Emperor  Paul.  That  prince,  who  entertained  lofty  ideas,  but 
who  yielded  too  often  to  his  passions,  had  determined  to  revive 
the  principles  of  the  Armed  Neutrality,  according  to  the  treaty 
of  1780,  and  to  compel  England  to  acknowledge  them.  He  in- 
vited Denmark  and  Sweden,  in  so  very  peremptory  a  manner,  to 
join  with  him  for  this  purpose,  that  these  States  could  not  refuse 
their  consent  without  coming  to  an  open  rupture  with  him.  This 
agreement  with  the  courts  of  Copenhagen,  Sweden  and  Berlin 
was  finally  settled  by  the  conventions  signed  at  St.  Petersburg 
(Dec.  16,  and  18.)     As  Great  Britain  could  not  find  a  more  con- 


PERIOD  IX.     A.  D.  17S9— 1815.  183 

venient  occasion  than  that  of  her  maritime  preponderance,  foi 
deciding  those  questions  on  which  she  had  maintained  silence 
in  1780,  war  was  declared  ;  and  hostilities  commenced  in  cource 
of  a  few  months.  A  body  of  Danish  troops  occupied  Hamburg 
and  Lubec.  The  Prussians  took  possession  of  Bremen  and 
Hanover  (April  3.)  An  English  flee*;,  consisting  of  seventeen 
sail  of  the  line,  commanded  by  Admirals  Sir  Hyde  Parker  and 
Lord  Nelson,  forced  the  passage  of  the  Sound  without  sustain- 
ing much  injury  (March  30.)  A  squadron  under  Lord  Nelson 
engaged  the  Danish  fleet  before  Copenhagen  (April  3,)  which 
was  commanded  by  Admiral  Olfart  Fischer.  The  action  was 
spirited  on  both  sides,  and  added  a  new  wreath  to  the  fame  of 
Nelson  ;  and  although  the  Danes  were  obliged  to  yield  to  the 
superiority  of  British  valour,  they  acquitted  themselves  bravely 
and  honourably.  Within  seven  days  after,  an  armistice  was 
concluded. 

Admiral  Parker  continued  his  route  by  the  Baltic  and  arrived 
before  Carlscrona  (April  19,)  where  he  was  on  the  eve  of  com- 
mencing hostilities  against  Sweden,  when  he  was  apprised  of 
the  death  of  the  Emperor  Paul.  That  event  dissolved  the  League 
of  the  North,  and  put  an  end  to  the  war.  By  a  convention 
which  the  Emperor  Alexander  concluded  at  St.  Petersburg 
(June  17,)  the  principles  of  maritime  law  which  the  English  had 
professed  were  recognised.  The  other  powers  of  the  North  ac- 
ceded to  this  convention.  The  Danes  evacuated  Hamburg  and 
Lubec ;  but  Prussia  continued  in  possession  of  Hanover  until 
the  conclusion  of  the  peace  between  France  and  England. 

With  regard  to  Holland,  the  twenty  years  which  elapsed  be- 
tween 1795  and  1814  formed  an  era  of  calamities  and  disasters. 
The  Patriots,  who  comprehended  the  middle  class  of  the  Dutch 
community,  had  gained  the  ascendancy  on  the  entrance  of  the 
French  army ;  one  consequence  of  which  was,  the  abolition  of 
the  Stadtholdership.  But  that  party  became  sensible  of  their 
error,  when  they  saw  the  ruin  of  their  country.  The  indepen- 
dence of  their  Republic  was  acknowledged  by  the  treaty  of  the 
Hague  (May  16,  1795,)  which,  by  giving  it  France  for  an  ally, 
subjected  it  in  effect  to  that  power ;  and  reduced  it  to  the  con- 
dition of  a  province, — the  more  neglected,  as  it  was  not  entirely 
united.  The  constitution  which  the  Batavian  Republic  (the 
title  which  it  assumed)  had  adopted,  vacillated  between  two  op- 
posite systems,  the  adherents  of  which  could  come  to  no  agree- 
ment ; — namely,  that  of  a  United  and  that  of  a  Federal  republic. 
While  these  matters  were  under  debate,  the  English,  who  had 
joined  the  Stadtholder's  party,  stripped  the  Republic  of  its  colo- 
nies ;  destroyed  its  marine,  particularly  in  the  action  which  Ad 


184  CHAPTER  X. 

miral  Duncan  fought  with  De  Winter  near  Camperdown  {Ozi, 
n,  1797  ;)  and  annihilated  her  commerce  and  her  navigation 
by  blockading  her  coasts, — not  excepting  even  her  fisheries. 

The  overthrow  of  the  ancient  Helvetic  Confederacy,  is  un« 
doubtedly  one  of  the  high  crimes  with  which  history  has  to  re- 
proach the  Executive  Directory  of  France.  The  constitution 
drawn  up  by  MM.  Ochs  and  La  Harpe  after  the  model  of  that 
of  France,  which  excluded  the  federative  system,  was  published 
by  the  French  party  (May  30,  1798,)  in  spite  of  the  modifica- 
tions which  the  more  judicious  patriots  had  attempted  to  intro- 
duce ;  and  supported  by  the  French  army  under  General  Schau- 
enburg.  To  compel  the  smaller  cantons  to  submit  to  this  yoke, 
it  was  necessary  to  have  recourse  to  fire  and  sword.  The 
Grisons  found  means,  however,  to  evade  it  by  receiving  an  Aus- 
trian army  among  them,  in  virtue  of  a  convention  which  was 
concluded  at  Coire  (Oct.  17  ;)  and  it  was  not  till  after  the  unfor- 
tunate campaign  of  1799,  that  they  were  compelled  to  renounce 
their  independence.  France  appropriated  to  herself  the  Swiss 
part  of  the  bishopric  of  Basle,  and  the  cities  of  Mulhouse  and 
Geneva.  The  terms  of  subjection  on  which  the  Helvetic  Re- 
public was  to  stand  in  future  with  France,  were  determined  by 
an  alliance,  offensive  and  defensive,  concluded  at  Paris  (Aug. 
19.)  Switzerland  henceforth  renounced  that  neutrality  which 
for  centuries  she  had  regarded  as  the  pledge  and  safeguard  of 
her  liberties. 

The  animosity  which  reigned  between  the  Unionists  and  the 
Federalists,  caused  several  revolutions  in  the  government  of 
that  Republic.  But  as  these  intrigues  were  carried  on,  on  a 
small  scale,  and  have  left  few  traces  behind,  it  is  unnecessary 
here  to  enter  into  any  detail.  If  the  Revolution  in  Switzerland 
did  not  produce  a  single  man  remarkable  for  great  talents,  or  of 
a  commanding  character,  the  religious  spirit  of  the  country,  the 
instruction  of  the  people,  and  the  diffusion  of  knowledge,  at 
least  preserved  them  from  those  crimes  and  excesses  which 
stained  the  Revolutionists  in  France. 

At  the  peace  of  Amiens  all  Italy,  with  the  exception  of  a  part 
of  the  Venetian  territory  which  was  united  to  Austria,  had 
yielded  to  the  dominion  of  France.  The  King  of  the  Two  Si- 
cilies alone  had  still  maintained  a  sort  of  independence.  In 
no  country  had  the  revolutionary  principles  of  the  eighteenth 
century  found  more  abettors  among  the  higher  classes  than  in 
Piedmont.  The  King  of  Sardinia  was  the  first  sovereign  whose 
throne  was  undermined  by  their  influence.  Scarcely  had  Vic- 
lor  Amadeus  III.,  who  ascended  the  throne  in  1773,  joined  the 
league  against  France  (July  25,  1792,)  when  the  Republicat* 


PERIOD  IX.      A.  D.  1/89 — 1815.  IbJ 

armies  attacked,  and  made  an  easy  conquest  of  Savoy  and  Nice. 
Great  Britain  granted  him,  by  the  treaty  of  London  (April  25, 
1793,)  subsidies  for  carrying  on  the  war  with  vigour.  We 
have  related  above  the  disasters  whicl  .le  met  with  in  the  war 
against  France.  The  peace  of  Paris  cost  him  the  sacrifice  of 
two  provinces.  In  vain  did  his  son  Charles  Emanuel  IV.  hope 
to  save  the  remainder  of  his  estates,  by  becoming  an  ally  of  the 
French  Directory  at  the  treaty  of  Turin,  (April  5,  1797.)  His 
political  influence  was  lost ;  they  knew  they  could  command  any 
thing  from  that  ally.  Their  first  request  was  the  surrender  of 
the  city  of  Turin,  by  the  convention  of  Milan  (June  28,  1798.) 
The  Directory  afterwards  declared  war  against  that  prince  with- 
out any  grounds ;  and  he  could  not  obtain  permission  to  retire 
to  Sardinia,  except  by  signing  a  kind  of  abdication  (Dec,  9  ;) 
against  which  he  afterwards  protested.  Piedmont  was  thus 
governed  entirely  according  to  the  pleasure  of  France ;  and 
immediately  after  the  peace  of  Amiens,  it  was  definitively  an- 
nexed to  her  territories. 

Austrian  Lombardy  (with  the  exception  of  Mantua,)  the 
dutchy  of  Modena,  the  three  Legatines  ceded  by  Pius  VI.,  and 
a  part  of  the  Venetian  territory,  formed  the  Cisalpine  Eepublic, 
which  Bonaparte  declared  independent,  by  the  preliminaries  of 
Leoben  (June  29,  1797.)  He  soon  after  (Oct.  22,)  added  to  it 
the  Valteline,  Chiavenna,  and  Bormio,  which  he  had  taken  from 
the  Grisons;  and  at  a  later  period  (Sept.  7,  1800,)  he  added  a 
part  of  Piedmont,  viz.  the  Novarese,  and  the  country  beyond  the 
Sesia.  Mantua  was  likewise  annexed  to  this  Eepublic  at  the 
peace  of  Luneville.  Its  connexions  with  France  had  been  de- 
termined by  the  alliance  of  1798,  which  were  more  servile  than 
those  in  which  the  Batavian  Republic,  and  afterwards  that  of 
Switzerland,  were  placed.  In  this  pretended  Republic,  France 
exercised  an  absolute  power;  she  changed  its  constitution  at 
pleasure,  appointed  and  deposed  its  highest  functionaries  as  suit- 
ed her  convenience.  The  victories  of  Suwarow  put  an  end  for 
some  time  to  the  existence  of  that  State  ;  but  after  the  battle  of 
Marengo,  matters  w^ere  replaced  on  their  ancient  footing. 

The  Republic  of  Genoa,  distracted  by  innovations  at  home, 
and  threatened  from  abroad  by  England  and  France,  hesitated 
for  some  time  as  to  the  system  v/hich  they  should  adopt.  But 
after  the  French  had  become  masters  of  the  Bocchetta,  the 
Senate  consented,  by  a  treaty  concluded  at  Paris  (Oct.  9,  1796,) 
to  give  them  a  sum  of  money,  and  shut  their  ports  against  the 
English.  After  the  preliminaries  of  Leoben,  this  Republic  ac- 
cepted a  democratic  constitution  from  the  hand  of  Bonaparte, 
according  to  the  treaty  of  Montebello  (June  6,  1797.)     It  paid 

VOL.  11.  16  "^ 


186  CHAPTER  X. 

large  sums  of  money,  and  was  gratified  by  the  Imperial  fiefs 
which  Bonaparte  added  to  its  territory.  It  then  took  the  name 
of  the  Ligurian  Republic  (June  14.)  We  have  ihead}"  men- 
tioned how  the  Grand  Duke  of  Tuscany  was  unjustly  deprived 
of  his  estates,  which  Bonaparte  made  ov^er  by  the  treaty  of  St. 
Ildefonso  to  the  hereditary  Prince  of  Parma,  son-in-law  to 
Charles  IV.  of  Spain.  This  young  prince  was  proclaimed  King 
of  Etruria,  (Aug.  2,  1801,)  and  acknowledged  by  all  the  Euro- 
r)ean  powers ;  but  during  his  brief  reign,  he  was  more  a  vassal 
of  Bonaparte  than  an  independent  sovereign. 

Pius  VI.  had  protested  against  the  spoliation  of  the  Church, 
which  the  Constituent  Assembly  of  France  had  committed,  by 
the  union  of  Avignon  and  the  County  of  Venaissin  to  the  Re- 
public, (Nov.  3,  1791 ;)  and  from  that  time  he  was  treated  as  an 
enemy.  The  truce  of  Bologna,  (June  23, 1796,)  cost  him  twenty- 
one  millions  of  francs,  and  many  of  the  finest  specimens  of  art. 
He  consented  that  such  statues  and  pictures  as  might  be  selected 
by  commissioners  appointed  for  that  purpose,  should  be  conveyed 
to  the  French  capital.  Finding  it  impossible  to  obtain  an  equi- 
table peace,  he  set  on  foot  an  army  of  45,000  men,  which  he 
placed  under  the  command  of  General  Colli,  a  native  of  Austria  ; 
but  Bonaparte,  notwithstanding,  compelled  his  Holiness  to  con- 
clude a  peace  at  Tolentino,  (Feb.  19, 1797,)  which  cost  him  fif- 
teen millions  more,  and  the  three  Legatines  of  Bologna,  Fer- 
rara,  and  Romagna.  He  renounced  at  the  same  time  Avignon 
and  the  County  of  Venaissin.  In  consequence  of  a  tumult 
which  took  place  at  Rome,  in  which  the  French  General  Duphot 
was  killed,  a  French  army  under  General  Berthier,  entered  that 
city  (Feb.  11, 1798,)  and  proclaimed  the  Roman  Republic;  which, 
as  we  have  noticed,  enjoyed  but  an  ephemeral  existence.  The 
governrivent  was  vested  in  five  consuls,  thirty-two  senators,  and 
seventy-two  tribunes,  called  the  Representatives  of  the  people. 
Pius  Vl.  was  carried  captive  to  France,  and  died  at  Valence 
(Aug.  29,  1799.)  The  Conclave  assembled  at  Venice,  and 
elected  Cardinal  Chiaramonte  in  his  place,  (March  13,  1800,) 
who  assumed  the  title  of  Pius  VII.,  and  within  a  short  time 
after  made  his  public  entry  into  Rome.  Bonaparte,  then  elected 
First  Consul,  allowed  him  to  enjoy  the  rest  of  his  estates  in 
peace. 

Towards  the  end  of  1792,  a  French  fleet,  commanded  by  Ad- 
miral La  Touche,  appeared  off  the  port  of  Naples,  and  obliged 
the  King  to  acknowledge  that  first  of  all  sovereigns,  the  French 
Republic.  This  did  not  prevent  him  from  entering  into  the  coa- 
lition, (July  12,  1793,)  by  a  treaty  of  alliance  with  England, 
which  was  concluded  at  Naples.     After  the  success  of  Bona- 


PERIOD  IX.     A.  D.  1789—1815.  187 

parte  in  Lombardy,  Ferdinand  IV.  averted  the  storra  which 
threatened  him,  by  signing  first  a  suspension  of  arms  at  Brescia 
(June  5  1798,)  and  the  peace  of  Paris  a  few  months  after, 
which  he  obtained  on  honourable  conditions.  We  have  already 
mentioned,  that  he  was  one  of  the  first  sovereigns  who  entered 
into  the  second  coalition  against  France ;  and  that  the  precip- 
itancy with  which  he  then  commenced  hostilities,  proved  pre- 
judicial to  the  success  of  the  war,  as  well  as  disastrous  to  him- 
self. He  did  not  regain  possession  of  the  kingdom  of  Naples 
till  after  the  retreat  of  Macdonald  in  1799 ;  and  he  purchased 
peace  (March  28,  1800)  at  the  expense  of  receiving  into  his 
kingdom  16,000  French  troops,  who  remained  there  until  the 
conclusion  of  the  treaty  between  Alexander  and  Bonaparte. 

The  combined  fleets  of  Turkey  and  Russia  had  subdued  the 
islands  that  formerly  belonged  to  the  Venetians,  viz.  Corfu, 
Zante,  Cephalonia,  St.  Maura,  Ithaca,  Paxo,  and  Cerigo.  Ac- 
cording to  a  convention  concluded  at  Constantinople  between 
Russia  and  the  Porte  (March  21,  1800,)  these  islands  were  to 
form  an  independent  State,  although  subject  to  the  Ottoman  Em- 
pire, under  the  name  of  the  Republic  of  the  Seven  Islands 
This  Republic,  was  acknowledged  in  subsequent  treaties  by 
France  and  Great  Britain. 

By  the  peace  of  Basle,  Germany  had  been  divided  into  two 
parts  ;  the  North,  at  the  head  of  which  was  Prussia ;  and  the 
South,  where  Austria  had  the  predominancy,  in  consequence  ot 
her  armies,  and  by  the  favour  of  the  ecclesiastical  Princes ;  for 
the  secular  States  abandoned  her  as  often  as  they  could  do  so  with 
impunity.  By  a  convention  which  Prussia  concluded  at  Basle 
with  France  (May  17,  1795,)  the  neutrality  of  the  North  of 
Germany  was  recognised,  on  conditions  which  the  Princes  situ- 
ated beyond  the  line  of  demarcation  were  anxious  to  fulfil. 
Prussia  afterwards  concluded  arrangements  with  these  States 
for  establishing  an  army  of  observation.  This  defection  created 
no  small  animosity  between  the  Courts  of  Berlin  and  Vienna, 
which  the  French  dexterously  turned  to  their  own  advantage  ; 
especially  during  the  silting  of  the  Congress  at  Rastadt.  In 
vain  did  the  Emperor  Paul,  who  had  determined  to  make  war 
against  the  Republic,  attempt  to  restore  harmony  between  these 
two  leading  States.  He  was  equally  unsuccessful  in  his  pro- 
ject of  drawing  Prussia  into  the  coalition.  Although  Frederic 
II.  had  been  deceived  by  France,  who,  after  having  promised 
him,  in  a  secret  convention  concluded  at  Berlin  (August  5, 
1796,)  a  compensation  proportioned  to  the  loss  which  he  had 
sustained  by  ceding  the  left  bank  of  the  Rhine,  entered  into  en- 
gagements directly  opposite,  by  the  secret  articles  in  the  treaty 


189  CHAPTER  X. 

of  Campo  Formio.  Nevertheless  Frederic  William  III.,  who 
succeeded  his  father  (Nov.  16,  1797,)  remained  faithful  to  a 
neutrality  which  the  state  of  the  Prussian  finances  appeared  to 
render  necessary. 

The  revolutionary  doctrines  which  were  transplanted  into 
Germany  by  the  French  emissaries,  had  fallen  on  a  soil  well 
prepared,  and  in  which  they  speedily  struck  root.  By  the  peace 
of  Luneville,  all  the  provinces  situated  on  the  left  bank  of  the 
Rhine,  were  incorporated  with  France  ;  and  the  moment  was 
approaching  which  was  to  witness  the  downfall  of  the  German 
Empire.  While  the  French  nation,  seized  with  a  strange  ma- 
nia, were  overturning  law  and  order  from  their  very  founda- 
tions, and  abandoning  themselves  to  excesses  which  appear 
almost  incredible  in  a  civilized  country,  in  the  North  another 
nation,  sunk  into  anarchy  and  oppressed  by  their  neighbours, 
were  making  a  noble  effort  to  restore  the  authority  of  the  laws, 
and  to  extricate  themselves  from  the  bondage  of  a  foreign  yoke. 

The  Poles  had  flattered  themselves,  that  while  the  forces  of 
Russia  were  occupied  against  the  Swedes  and  the  Turks,  as  we 
have  already  mentioned,  they  would  be  left  at  liberty  to  alter 
their  constitution,  and  give  a  new  vigour  to  the  government  of 
their  Republic.  An  extraordinary  Diet  was  assembled  at  War- 
saw (178S,)  which  formed  itself  into  a  Confederation,  in  order 
to  avoid  the  inconveniences  of  the  Llherujn  Veto,  and  of  the 
unanimity  required  in  ordinary  diets.  The  Empress  of  Russia 
having  made  some  attempts  at  that  Diet  to  engage  the  Poles  to 
enter  into  an  alliance  against  the  Porte,  she  was  thwarted  in  her 
intentions  by  the  King  of  Prussia,  who,  in  consequence  of  his 
engagements  with  England,  used  every  effort  to  instigate  the 
Poles  against  Russia.  He  encouraged  them,  by  offering  them 
his  alliance,  to  attempt  a  reform  in  their  government,  which 
Russia  had  recently  guaranteed.  A  Committee  of  Legisla- 
tion, appointed  by  the  Diet  was  commissioned  to  draw  up  the 
plan  of  a  constitution,  which  would  give  new  energy  to  the  Re- 
public. 

This  resolution  of  the  Diet  could  not  but  displease  the  Em- 
press of  Russia,  who  remonstrated  against  it  as  a  direct  infrac- 
tion of  the  articles  agreed  between  her  and  the  Republic  in 
1775.  The  Poles,  who  thus  foresaw  that  the  changes  which 
they  had  in  view  would  embroil  them  with  that  princess,  ought 
to  have  considered,  in  the  first  place,  how  to  put  themselves  into 
a  good  state  of  defence.  But  instead  of  providing  for  the  melio- 
ration of  their  finances,  and  putting  the  army  of  the  Republic  on 
a  respectable  footing,  the  Diet  spent  a  considerable  time  in  dis- 
cussing the  new  plan  of  the  constitution  which  had  been  submit 


PERIOD  IX.     A.  D.  1789— 1S15.  189 

ted  to  them.  The  assurance  of  protection  from  Prussia,  which 
had  been  officially  ratified  to  them,  rendered  the  Poles  too  con- 
fident ;  and  the  treaty  of  alliance  which  the  Kino-  of  Prussia  had 
in  effect  concluded  with  the  Republic  (March  29,  1790,)  began 
to  lull  them  into  a  profound  security.  Stanislaus  Augustus, 
after  having  long  hesitated  as  to  the  party  he  ought  to  espouse, 
at  length  voluntarily  joined  that  party  in  the  Diet  who  wished 
to  extricate  Poland  from  that  state  of  degradation  into  which  she 
had  fallen.  The  new  constitution  was  accordingly  decreed  by 
acclamation  (May  3,  1791.) 

However  imperfect  that  constitution  might  appear,  it  was  in 
unison  with  the  state  of  civilization  to  which  Poland  had  arriv 
ed.  It  corrected  several  of  the  errors  and  defects  of  former  laws ; 
and  though  truly  republican,  it  was  free  from  those  extravagant 
notions  which  the  French  Revolution  had  brought  into  fashion. 
The  throne  was  rendered  hereditary  in  favour  of  the  Electoral 
House  of  Saxony ;  they  abolished  the  law  of  unanimity,  and  the 
absurdity  of  the  Liberum  Veto  ;  the  Diet  was  declared  perma- 
nent, and  the  Legislative  body  divided  into  two  Chambers.  One 
of  these  Chambers,  composed  of  Deputies  whose  functions  were 
to  continue  for  two  years,  was  charged  with  discussing  and 
framing  the  laws  ;  and  the  other,  consisting  of  a  Senate  in  which 
the  King  presided,  were  to  sanction  them,  and  to  exercise  the 
Veto  ;  the  executive  power  was  intrusted  to  the  King,  and  a 
Council  of  Superintendence  consisting  of  seven  members  or  re- 
sponsible ministers.  The  inhabitants  of  the  towns  were  allow- 
ed the  privilege  of  electing  their  own  Deputies  and  Judges,  and 
the  burgesses  had  the  way  laid  open  to  them  for  attaining  the 
honours  of  nobility.  The  latter  were  maintained  in  all  the 
plenitude  of  their  rights  and  prerogatives ;  the  peasantry,  who 
had  been  in  a  state  of  servitude,  were  placed  under  the  imme- 
diate protection  of  the  laws  and  the  government ;  the  constitu- 
tion sanctioned  before-hand  the  compacts  which  the  landed  pro- 
prietors might  enter  into  with  their  tenantry  for  meliorating 
their  condition. 

The  efforts  which  the  Poles  had  made  to  secure  their  inde 
pendence,  excited  the  resentment  of  Russia.  The  Empress  had 
no  sooner  made  peace  with  the  Porte,  than  she  engaged  her  par- 
tisans in  Poland  to  form  a  confederacy  for  the  purpose  of  over- 
turning the  innovations  of  the  Diet  at  Warsaw,  and  restoring 
the  ancient  constitution  of  the  Republic.  This  confederation, 
which  was  signed  at  Targowica  (May  14,  1792,)was  headed  by 
the  Counts  Felix  Potochi,  Rzewuski,  and  Branicki.  In  support 
of  this  confederacy,  the  Empress  sent  an  army  into  Poland,  to 
wage  war  against  the  partisans  of  the  new  order  of  things.  The 


J  90  CHAPTER   X. 

Poles  had  never  till  then  thought  seriously  of  adopting  vigorous 
measures.  The  Diet  decreed,  that  an  army  of  the  line  should 
immediately  take  the  field ;  and  that  a  levy  should  be  made  of 
several  corps  of  light  troops.  A  loan  of  thirty-three  millions  of 
florins  passed  without  the  least  opposition ;  but  the  Prussian 
minister  having  been  called  upon  to  give  some  explanation  as  to 
the  subsidies  which  the  King  his  master  had  promised  to  the 
Republic  by  the  treaty  of  alliance  of  1790,  he  made  an  evasive 
answer,  which  discouraged  the  whole  patriotic  party. 

The  refusal  of  the  Polish  Diet  to  accede  to  a  mercantile 
scheme,  by  which  Dantzic  and  Thorn  were  to  be  abandoned  to 
the  King  of  Prussia,  had  disaffected  that  monarch  towards  Po- 
land. It  was  not  difficult,  therefore,  for  the  Empress  of  Russia 
to  obtain  his  consent  to  a  dismemberment  of  that  kingdom. 
The  aversion  which  the  sovereigns  of  Europe  entertained  for 
every  thing  that  resembled  the  French  Revolution,  with  which, 
however,  the  events  of  Poland  where  the  King  and  the  nation 
were  acting  in  concert  had  nothing  in  common  except  appear- 
ances, had  a  powerful  effect  upon  the  Court  of  Berlin ;  and 
proved  the  cause  of  their  breaking  those  engagements  which 
they  had  contracted  with  that  Republic.  It  was  then  that  the 
Poles  fully  comprehended  the  danger  of  their  situation.  Their 
first  ardour  cooled,  and  the  whole  Diet  were  thrown  into  a  state 
of  the  utmost  consternation. 

Abandoned  to  her  own  resources,  and  convulsed  by  intestine 
divisions,  Poland  then  saw  her  utter  inability  to  oppose  an  ene- 
my so  powerful  as  the  Russians.  The  campaign  of  1792  turned 
out  entirely  to  the  disadvantage  of  the  Patriotic  party.  After 
a  successful  career,  the  Russians  advanced  on  Warsaw ;  when 
Stanislaus,  who  was  easily  intimidated,  acceded  to  the  confede- 
racy of  Targowica,  by  renouncing  the  constitution  of  the  3d  May, 
and  the  acts  of  the  revolutionary  Diet  of  Warsaw.  That  prince 
even  subscribed  (Aug.  25,  1792)  to  all  the  conditions  which  the 
Empress  thought  proper  to  dictate  to  him.  A  suspension  of 
arms  was  agreed  to,  which  stipulated  for  the  reduction  of  the 
Polish  army.  In  consequence  of  the  arrangements  entered  into 
oetween  Russia  and  Prussia,  by  the  convention  of  St.  Peters- 
burg (Jan.  23,  1793,)  the  Prussian  troops  entered  Poland,  and 
spread  over  the  country  after  the  example  of  the  Russians. 
Proclamations  were  issued  by  the  Courts  of  Berlin  and  St.  Pe- 
tersburg, by  which  they  declared  the  districts  of  Poland  which 
their  troops  had  occupied,  incorporated  with  their  own  domin- 
ions. The  adoption  of  the  constitution  of  1791,  and  the  propa- 
gation of  the  democratic  principles  of  the  French,  were  the 
causes  ol  tnis  new  dismemberment  of  Poland. 


PFR-O'?  IX.     A.  D.  1789—1815.  191 

Prussia  took  posse.s.»ion  of  the  larger  part  of  GreatToland,  in- 
cluding the  cities  of  iJantzic  and  Thorn  ;  the  town  of  Czensto- 
chowa  in  Little  Poland  was  also  adjudged  to  her,  with  its  fron- 
tier extending  to  the  rivers  Pilica,  Sterniewka,  Jezowka,  and 
Bzura.  The  left  bank  of  these  rivers  was  assigned  to  Prussia, 
and  the  right  reserved  to  Poland.  The  portion  awarded  to  the 
former,  contained,  one  thousand  and  sixty-one  German  square 
miles,  and  one  million  two  hundred  thousand  inhabitants.  Rus- 
sia got  nearly  the  half  of  Lithuania,  including  the  Palatinates  of 
Podolia,  Polotsk,  and  Minsk,  a  part  of  the  Palatinate  of  Wilna, 
with  the  half  of  Novogrodek,  Brzesc,  and  Volhynia  ;  in  all,  four 
thousand  five  hundred  and  fifty-three  German  square  mile?  and 
containing  three  millions  of  inhabitants. 

The  Poles  were  obliged  to  yield  up,  by  treaties,  those  pro- 
vinces which  the  tv/o  powers  had  seized.  The  treaty  between 
Poland  and  Russia  was  signed  at  the  Diet  of  Grodno  (July  13, 
1793.)  But  that  with  the  King  of  Prussia  met  with  the  most 
decided  opposition  ;  and  it  was  necessary  to  use  threats  of  com- 
pulsion before  it  was  consummated.  On  this  occasion,  these 
^v;o  powers  reno'.'nced  anew  the  rights  and  pretensions  which 
•■.hey  might  stiH  b;-v^e  against  the  Republic  under  any  denomina- 
tion whatsoever.  They  agreed  to  acknowledge,  and  if  it  should 
«e  required,  also  *o  guarantee  the  constitution  which  should  be 
established  by  \he  Diet  with  the  free  consent  of  the  Polish  nation. 

After  these  treaties,  came  a  treaty  of  alliance  and  union  be- 
tween Russia  and  Poland  (October  16,  1793,)  the  third  article 
of  which  gup  'anteed  their  mutual  assistance  in  case  of  attack ; 
the  direction  of  the  war  was  reserved  to  Russia,  as  well  as  the 
privilege  of  ?  ending  her  troops  into  Poland,  and  forming  maga- 
zines there,  vhen  she  might  judge  it  necessary  ;  while  Poland 
agreed  to  e.r  ter  into  no  connexion  with  foreign  powers,  and  to 
make  no  cV  inge  in  her  constitution,  except  with  the  approbation 
of  Russia  The  portion  that  was  left  to  the  Republic,  either 
m  PolanJ  3r  Lithuania,  contained  three  thousand  eight  hundred 
md  thrf  /  square  miles,  with  somewhat  more  than  three  mil- 
lions cf  inhabitants.  This  State  was  divided  into  eighteen 
Dalat^'r.P/'-es,  ten  of  which  were  in  Poland,  and  eight  in  Lithua- 
nia. To  each  of  these  palatinates  were  assigned  two  senators, 
1  palatine,  a  castellain,  and  six  deputies  to  sit  in  the  Diet. 

These  diflferent  treaties,  and  the  grievances  of  which  the 
Poles  had  just  cause  to  complain,  threw  the  public  mind  into  a 
state  of  agitation,  which  in  the  following  year  broke  out  into  a 
general  insurrection.  A  secret  association  was  formed  at  War- 
saw ;  it  found  numerous  partisans  in  the  army,  which  was  to 
nave  been  disbanded  according  to  the  arrangements  with  Rus- 


192  CHAPTER  X 

sia  The  conspirators  chose  Thaddeus  Kosciuszko  for  theii 
chief,  in  this  projected  insurrection  against  Russia.  That  gen- 
eral had  distinguished  himself  in  the  American  war  under 
Washington  ;  he  had  very  recently  signalized  his  bravery  in  the 
campaign  of  1792 ;  and  after  the  unfortunate  issue  of  that  war, 
he  had  retired  into  Saxony  with  a  few  other  patriots,  who  were 
ready  to  exert  their  energy  in  the  cause  of  freedom.  The  in- 
surgents reckoned  with  confidence  on  the  assistance  of  Austria, 
who  had  taken  no  part  in  the  last  dismemberment  of  Poland , 
they  flattered  themselves  that  Turkey  and  Sweden  would  not 
remain  mere  spectators  of  the  efforts  which  they  were  making 
to  regain  their  liberty  and  their  independence. 

Kosciuszko  had  wished  that  they  should  postpone  the  execu- 
tion of  their  plan,  in  order  to  gain  more  time  for  preparation  ; 
especially  as  a  suspicion  was  excited  among  the  Russians.  He 
even  retired  into  Italy,  where  he  remained  until  one  of  his  ac- 
complices, who  had  been  ordered,  as  a  propagator  of  sedition,  to 
banish  himself  from  the  Polish  territories,  informed  him  that 
his  countrymen  wished  him  to  appear  among  them  without  de- 
lay, as  a  better  opportunity  might  not  soon  arise.  Madalinski, 
who  commanded  a  brigade  of  cavalry  under  the  new  govern- 
ment, when  summoned  to  disband  them,  refused  ;  and  throwing 
ofl^  the  mask,  gave  the  signal  for  insurrection.  He  suddenly 
quitted  his  station,  crossed  the  Vistula,  and  after  having  dis- 
persed some  detachments  of  Prussians,  whom  he  encountered 
in  his  route,  he  marched  directly  to  Cracow,  where  he  erected 
the  standard  of  revolt.  The  inhabitants  took  arms,  expelled 
the  Russian  troops  who  were  quartered  in  that  city,  and  pro- 
claimed Kosciuszko  their  General.  A  sort  of  dictatorship  was 
conferred  upon  him  (March  24,  1794,)  which  was  to  continue  so 
long  as  their  country  was  in  danger.  He  took  an  oath  of  fidel- 
ity to  the  nation,  and  of  adherence  to  the  principles  stated  in 
the  act  of  insurrection,  by  which  war  was  declared  against  the 
invaders  of  their  rights  and  liberties. 

The  Russians  and  Prussians  immediately  despatched  their 
troops  to  arrest  the  progress  of  the  insurrection.  The  defeat  oi 
a  body  of  Russians  near  Raslavice,  by  Kosciuszko,  inspired  the 
insurgents  with  new  courage.  The  inhabitants  of  Warsaw 
rose  in  like  manner  against  the  Russians,  who  had  a  garrison 
there  of  10,000  men,  under  the  command  of  General  Igelstrom. 
It  Avas  on  the  night  of  the  17th  April  that  the  tocsin  of  revolt 
was  sounded  in  the  capital ;  the  insurgents  seized  the  arsenal, 
and  distributed  arms  and  ammunition  among  the  people.  A 
brisk  cannonade  took  place  between  the  Russians  and  the  Poles. 
The  combat  continued  for  two  successive  days,  in  which  severaJ 


PERIOD  IX.     A.  D.  17S9— 1816.  193 

thousands  of  the  Russians  perished,  while  4500  were  made  pri- 
soner?. Igelslrom  escaped  from  the  city  with  about  3000  men. 
The  same  insurrection  broke  out  at  Wilna,  from  whence  it  ex- 
tended over  all  Lithuania.  Several  Polish  regiments  who  had 
entered  into  the  service  of  Russia,  changed  sides,  and  enlisted 
under  the  banners  of  the  insurgents. 

In  spite  of  their  first  success,  it  was  soon  perceived  that 
Poland  was  deficient  in  the  necessary  resources  for  an  enter- 
prise of  such  a  nature  as  that  in  which  they  were  engaged. 
The  great  body  of  the  citizens  were  neither  sufficiently  numer- 
ous nor  sufficiently  wealthy,  to  serve  as  a  centre  for  the  revolu- 
tion which  they  had  undertaken ;  and  the  servitude  in  which 
the  peasantry  were  kept,  was  but  ill  calculated  to  inspire  them 
with  enthusiasm  for  a  cause  in  which  their  masters  only  were 
to  be  the  gainers.  Besides,  the  patriots  were  divided  in  opin- 
ion ;  and  the  King,  although  he  appeared  to  approve  their  ef 
forts,  inspired  so  much  mistrust  by  his  weakness  and  timidity, 
that  he  was  even  accused  of  secretly  abetting  the  interests  of 
Russia.  Lastly,  the  nobles  who  alone  ought  to  have  shown 
courage  and  energy,  were  found  but  little  disposed  to  give  any 
effectual  support  to  the  cause  of  liberty.  Every  contribution 
appeared  to  them  an  encroachment  on  their  prerogatives  ;  and 
they  were  as  much  averse  to  a  levy  en  masse  as  to  the  raising 
of  recruits,  which  deprived  them  of  their  tenantry.  They  were, 
moreover,  afraid  of  losing  those  rights  and  privileges  which  they 
exclusively  enjoyed. 

Under  these  considerations,  Kosciuszko  was  convicvird  that  it 
was  impossible  for  him  to  organize  an  armed  force  equal  to  that 
of  the  Russians  and  the  Prussians,  who  Vv'ere  acting  in  concert 
to  defeat  the  measures  of  the  insurgents.  After  some  inferior 
operations,  an  important  engagement  took  place  on  the  confines 
of  the  Palatinates  of  Siradia  and  Cujavia  (June  8,  1794,)  where 
he  sustained  a  defeat ;  in  consequence  of  which  the  King  of 
Prussia  made  himself  master  of  Cracow.  That  prince,  supported 
by  a  body  of  Russian  troops,  undertook,  in  person,  the  siege  of 
Warsaw.  The  main  forces  of  the  insurgents  were  assembled 
under  the  walls  of  that  city.  They  amounted  to  about  22,000 
combatants,  while  the  enemy  had  more  than  50,000.  The  siege 
of  Warsaw  continued  nearly  two  months,  when  a  general  msur 
rection,  which  had  spread  from  Great  Poland  into  Western  Prus 
sia,  obliged  the  King  to  retire,  that  he  might  arrest  the  progress 
of  the  insurrection  in  his  own  dominions. 

The  iov  of  the  insurgents,  on  account  of  this  incident,  was 
but  of  short  duration.  The  Court  of  Vienna,  wliirh  till  then 
had  maintained  a  strict  neutrality,  resolved  also  to  despatch  an 

VOL.  11  17 


194  CHAPTER  X. 

army  into  Poland.  This  army  was  divided  into  two  columns. 
one  of  which  marched  on  Brzesci,  and  the  other  on  Dowbno. 
On  the  other  hand,  the  Russians  under  the  command  of  Suw-a- 
row,  advanced  into  Lithuania,  and  pursued  a  body  of  the  insur- 
gents, who  were  commanded  by  Sirakowski.  Kosciuszko.  who 
now  saw  the  gTeat  superiority  of  the  enemy,  made  a  last  effort 
to  prevent  the  junction  of  the  army  of  Suwarow  with  that  of 
Baron  de  Fersen,  the  Russian  General.  Directing  his  march 
cOwards  the  latter,  he  fought  a  bloody  battle  with  him  near 
Match?^ntz  (Oct.  10,  1794.)  The  action  continued  from  sunrise 
till  beyona  xixl^  day  Six  thousand  of  the  Polish  army  perished 
on  the  field,  and  the  lest  were  made  prisoners.  Kosciuszko  was 
himself  dangerously  wounded,  and  fell  into  the  hands  of  the 
conqueror.  He  had  endeavoured  to  escape  by  the  swiftness  of 
his  horse,  but  was  overtaken  by  some  of  the  Cossacs;  one  of 
Vv^hom,  without  knowing  him,  run  him  through  the  back  with 
his  lance.  Falling  senseless  from  his  horse,  he  was  carried  to 
a  monastery ;  when  it  was  intimated,  by  one  of  his  officers,  that 
he  was  the  Commander-in-chief.  Surgical  aid  was  immediately 
administered  to  him,  and  he  was  soon  after  conveyed  to  St. 
Petersburg. 

This  disaster  quite  dejected  the  courage  of  the  Poles.  Their 
Generals,  Dombrowski  and  Madalinski,  who  were  carrying  on 
the  war  in  Prussia  and  Great  Poland,  abandoned  these  provinces, 
and  marched  with  their  troops  to  the  relief  of  Warsaw.  Suwa 
row  likewise  directed  his  march  towards  that  capital,  and  was 
there  joined  by  a  considerable  body  of  Prussians,  under  Dorfel- 
den  and  Fersen,  in  conjunction  with  whom  he  commenced  the 
blockade  of  that  city  (Nov.  4.)  The  Russians,  who  amounted 
to  22,000  men,  prepared  for  an  attack  of  the  entrenchments  of 
Praga,  one  of  the  suburbs  of  Warsaw.  The  Poles,  who  had  a 
body  of  between  eight  and  ten  thousand  men,  made  a  courage- 
ous defence  ;  but  nothing  could  withstand  the  ardour  and  im- 
petuosity of  the  Russians,  who  were  burning  with  rage  to  avenge 
the  blood  of  their  countrymen  who  were  massacred  at  Warsaw. 

Three  batteries  had  been  erected  in  the  night ;  and  the  two 
first  divisions,  though  harassed  by  a  vigorous  fire  in  every  direc- 
tion except  the  rear,  bravely  surmounted  every  obstacle.  In  the 
'ipace  of  four  hours,  they  carried  the  triple  entrenchment  of  Pra- 
ga by  main  force.  Rushing  into  the  place,  they  pursued  their 
adversaries  through  the  streets,  put  the  greater  part  of  them  to 
the  sword,  and  drove  one  thousand  into  the  Vistula.  In  this 
scene  of  action,  a  regiment  of  Jews  made  an  obstinate  defence, 
and  at  length  were  totally  extirpated.  Thirteen  thousand  of  the 
Poles,  it  IS  said,  were  left  dead  on  the  spot;  two  thousand  were 


PERIOD  IX.     A.  D.  1789—  .Si 5  195 

drowned  in  the  Vistula,  and  between  fourteen  and  fifteen  thou 
sand  were  made  prisoners.  The  suburb  of  Praga  was  pihag-ecl 
and  razed  to  the  foundation.  Terror  seized  the  inhabitantg  of 
Warsaw,  and  they  determined  to  capitulate.  Suwarow  made 
his  triumphant  entry  into  that  capital,  and  was  presented  with 
the  keys  of  the  city  (Nov.  9.)  The  Polish  trof  ps  laid  &jvri 
their  arms  ;  the  insurrection  was  quelled;  and  the  greater j)art 
of  those  who  had  distinguished  themselves  in  it,  were  arrested 
by  the  Russians.  The  King  of  Poland  retired  to  Grodno  ;  and 
the  final  dismemberment  of  that  country  was  agreed  upon  by  the 
three  allied  powers. 

The  Court  of  Berlin  having  signified  their  intention  of  retain- 
ing Cracow  and  the  neighbouring  country,  of  which  their  troops 
had  just  taken  possession,  Austria,  who  was  also  desirous  of  pro- 
curing that  part  of  Poland,  took  advantage  of  the  discontent 
which  the  conduct  of  Prussia  during  the  campaign  of  1794,  and 
her  retreat  from  the  ensuing  coalition,  had  excited  in  the  Em 
press  of  Russia,  and  entered  into  a  separate  negotiation  with  the 
Court  of  St.  Petersburg.  They  arranged  privately  between 
themselves,  as  to  the  shares  which  were  to  fall  to  each.  An  act, 
in  form  of  a  declaration,  was  signed  at  St.  Petersburg,  between 
these  two  courts  (Jan.  3,  1795,)  purporting,  that  the  Cabinet  of 
Berlin  should  be  invited  to  accede  to  the  stipulations  therein 
contained ;  in  consideration  of  the  offer  which  the  two  courts 
made  to  acquiesce  in  the  reunion  of  the  remainder  of  Poland 
with  the  Prussian  monarchy,  and  the  engagement  which  they 
entered  into  to  guarantee  that  acquisition. 

A  negotiation  was  afterwards  set  on  foot  with  the  Court  of 
Berlin,  which  was  protracted  to  a  great  length  ;  as  that  Court, 
who  were  ignorant  of  the  engagement  which  Catherine  had  come 
under  to  secure  Cracow  to  Austria,  had  always  entertained  the 
hope  of  being  able  to  retain  it  themselves.  It  was  only  when 
the  act  of  the  3d  January  was  communicated  to  them,  that  they 
agreed  to  a  special  convention  with  the  Court  of  Vienna,  which 
was  signed  at  St.  Petersburg  (Oct.  24,  1795.)  The  city  of  Cra 
cow  w^as  abandoned  to  Austria,  who,  on  her  side,  resigned  in 
favour  of  the  King  of  Prussia  a  portion  of  the  territory  which  the 
declaration  of  the  3d  January  preceding  had  secured  to  her.  It 
was  settled,  that  the  limits  of  the  Palatinate  of  Cracow  should 
be  regulated  between  these  two  powers,  under  ihe  mediation  of 
the  Court  of  St.  Petersburg.  Stanislaus  had  then  no  other  al- 
ternative left,  than  to  resign  his  crown  into  the  hands  of  the  Em- 
press of  Russia.  The  act  of  his  abdication  was  dated  at  Grodno 
(Nov.  25,  1795.) 

It  was  by  these  diffcient  conventions,  that  Russia  obtained  all 


lyb  CHAPTER  X. 

that  remained  of  Poland  and  Lithuania,  as  far  as  the  Niemen 
and  the  confines  of  Brzesci  and  Novogrodek.  She  likewise 
obtained  the  greater  part  of  Samogitia,  with  the  whole  of  Cour- 
land  and  Semigallia.  She  had  besides,  in  Little  Poland,  that 
part  of  the  territory  of  Chelm  situated  on  the  right  bank  of  the 
Bug,  and  the  remainder  of  Volhynia ;  in  all,  containing  abou: 
two  thousand  square  miles,  with  one  million  two  hundred 
thousand  inhabitants. 

To  Austria  were  assigned,  in  addition  to  the  principal  part  of 
Cracow,  the  whole  Palatinates  of  Sendomir  and  Lublin,  with 
part  of  the  district  of  Chelm,  and  the  Palatinates  of  Brzesci, 
Podolachia,  and  Masovia,  which  lay  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Bug ; 
comprising  m  all,  about  eight  hundred  and  thirty-four  thousand 
German  square  miles,  with  about  one  million  of  inhabitants. 

To  Prussia,  was  assigned  part  of  the  Palatinates  of  Masovia 
and  Podolachia,  lying  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Bug ;  in  Lithu- 
ania, she  had  part  of  the  Palatinate  of  Troki  and  of  Samogitia 
which  lies  on  this  side  of  the  Niemen,  as  well  as  the  small  dis- 
trict in  Little  Poland,  making  part  of  the  Palatinate  of  Cracow ; 
the  whole  consisting  of  about  one  thousand  German  square 
miles,  with  a  population  of  one  million.  Finally,  by  a  subse- 
quent convention  which  was  concluded  at  St.  Petersburg  (Jan. 
26,  1797,)  the  three  co-participant  Courts  arranged  among  them- 
selves as  to  the  manner  of  discharging  the  debts  of  the  Ki^g 
and  the  Republic  of  Poland.  They  agreed  by  this  same  con- 
vention to  allow  the  dethroned  monarch  an  annuity  of  200,000 
ducats. 

At  the  commencement  of  this  period,  it  was  not  yet  perceived 
of  what  importance  it  was  for  Russia  to  get  possession  of  the 
Crimea;  and  it  was  not  until  the  agriculture  and  industry  of 
that  country  had  begun  to  prosper  under  a  wise  administration, 
that  they  began  to  apprehend  it  might  one  day  have  a  powerful 
influence  on  the  balance  of  trade.  The  Empress  Catherine, 
who  had  been  flattered  in  her  youth  by  the  eulogies  of  the  phi- 
losophers, so  as  to  become  a  disciple  of  their  new  doctrines, 
was  the  first  to  perceive  this  danger.  She  then  declared  her- 
self a  most  implacable  enemy  to  the  French  Revolution,  and 
would  gladly  have  armed  all  Europe  to  exterminate  the  Repub- 
lic. Nevertheless,  she  did  not  take  up  arms  herself,  and  only 
joined  the  first  coalition  in  an  indirect  manner,  and  by  conclud- 
ing treaties  purely  defensive,  such  as  that  of  Drontningholm 
with  Sweden  (Oct.  19,  1791,)  and  that  of  St.  Petersburg  with 
the  King  of  Hungary  and  Bohemia  (July  12,  1782,)  and  that 
which  was  concluded  (Aug.  7,)  i^  the  same  city  with  Prussia. 
Nevertheless,  when  Frederic  had  retired  from  the  list,  she  re* 


PEKIODIX.      A.  D.  17cJ9 1815.  197 

solved  10  send  into  the  field  the  sixty  thousand  men  ivhich  Eng- 
land was  to  take  into  pay.  The  treaty  was  on  the  eve  of  being 
.signed,  when  the  Empress  was  suddenly  cut  off  by  death 
(Nov.  17,  1796.) 

Paul,  her  successor,  refused  to  sanction  that  treaty.  We  have 
alread}"  noticed  the  active  hand  which  that  monarch  took  in  the 
war  of  1799  against  France ;  and  we  have  already  mentioned 
tJie  unsuccessful  attempt  which  he  made  to  revive  the  principles 
of  the  armed  neutrality.  This  Emperor,  who  wanted  stead- 
iness and  consistency,  published  at  his  coronation  (April  5, 1797,) 
a  fundamental  law  regarding  the  order  of  succession  to  the 
throne.  This  law,  intended  to  prevent  those  revolutions  which 
the  unsettled  state  of  the  throne  had  produced  in  Russia,  es- 
tablished a  mixed  lineal  succession,  agreeably  to  the  order  of 
primogeniture  ;  admitting  females  only  in  case  of  the  total 
extinction  of  the  male  descendants  of  the  male  line  of  Paul ; 
and  defining  with  the  most  scrupulous  exactness,  the  order  in 
Avhich  females  and  their  descendants  should  succeed  to  the 
throne.  But  being  weak  and  narrow-minded,  and  incapable  of 
discharging  his  imperial  functions,  he  entailed  upon  himself  the 
natred  of  both  the  nobility  and  the  people.  He  met  with  a 
violent  death,  having  been  murdered  by  a  party  of  daring  con- 
spirators (March  24,  1801.) 

Alexander,  who  succeeded  his  unfortunate  father,  lost  no  time 
in  restoring  peace  to  his  dominions,  by  entering  into  an  arrange- 
ment with  Great  Britain  (June  17,)  by  which  he  abandoned  the 
principles  of  free  trade  for  neutral  vessels  ;  admitting  that  even 
a  convoy  should  not  protect  these  from  being  subjected  to  a 
search  or  visitation,  when  ordered  by  the  Captain  of  a  vessel 
belonging  to  the  public  navy  of  a  belligerent  state.  He  like- 
wise concluded  peace  with  France  and  Spain  (Oct.  4,  8.) 

Sweden  had  extricated  herself  without  loss  from  the  war 
which  Gustavus  III.  had  imprudently  commenced.  That 
Prince  had  succeeded  in  extending  the  royal  prerogative,  and 
making  the  Diet  adopt  the  fundamental  act  of  union  and  secu- 
rity (March  29,  1792,)  vesting  in  himself  the  right  of  making 
war  and  peace,  which  according  to  the  former  order  of  things, 
he  could  only  exercise  with  the  concurrence  of  the  States.  Be- 
ing: endowed  with  an  ardent  and  heroic  character,  he  had  pro- 
posed to  march  at  the  head  of  the  armies  which  Louis  XVI. 
had  set  on  foot ;  but  he  fell  the  victim  of  a  conspiracy  formed 
by  the  discontented  nobles,  leaving  his  son  a  minor. 

The  Regency  of  the  Duke  of  Sudermania,  during  the  minor- 
ity of  Gustavus  IV.,  was   infested  by  jealousies  and  intrigues ; 
while  the   finances,  which  were  under  bad  management,  fell 
VOL.  IT.  17=^ 


198  CHAPTEE  XI. 

gradually  into  a  state  of  disorder.  The  policy  of  the  Regent 
was  decidedly  for  the  maintenance  of  peace.  The  yourg  King 
himself  assumed  the  reins  of  government  (November  1,  1796.) 
Although  he  had  e  itered  into  the  league  of  the  North,  formed 
by  Paul  I.,  for  the  maintenance  of  the  maritime  rights  of  neu- 
tral States,  he  acceded  shortly  after  to  the  opposite  system,  to 
which  Alexander  I.  had  declared  himself  favourable. 

Christian  VII.  had  reigned  in  Denmark  since  1766  ;  but  for 
the  last  twenty  years,  the  Prince  Royal  and  Count  Bernstorff 
bad  been  at  the  head  of  his  councils.  Under  their  administra- 
lion,  the  kingdom  nourished  in  profound  peace  which  had  not 
for  an  instant  been  interrupted,  except  in  1800,  by  the  vexatious 
treatment  which  the  Danish  ships  had  met  with  on  the  part  of 
England.  Denmark  was  the  first  of  the  European  powers  that 
abolished  the  African  slave  trade  (May  16,  1796.) 


CHAPTER  XI. 


PERIOD  IX. 


The  Military  Preponderance  of  France  under  the  sicay  of  Na 
poleoii  Bonaparte,     a.  d.  1802 — 1810. 

In  the  period  on  which  we  are  now  entering,  and  which  com- 
prehends eight  years,  we  shall  find  Napoleon  Bonaparte  devot- 
ing his  unremitting  efforts  to  a  threefold  project,  the  object  of 
which  was  to  secure  for  himself  the  empire  of  the  world.  The 
first  of  these  was  to  render  the  monarchical  government  heredi- 
tary in  his  family,  preparatory  to  the  introduction  of  a  universal 
dominion  ;  the  next  was  to  extend  the  boundaries  of  France  ; 
and  the  last  to  surround  that  country,  not  with  a  multitude  of 
Republics  as  the  Directory  had  done,  but  with  a  number  of 
petty  monarchies,  the  existence  of  which  should  be  so  amalga- 
mated with  his  own  dynasty,  that  they  must  stand  or  fall  with 
it.  We  shall  find  him  keeping  these  projects  incessantly  in 
view,  so  that  every  step  which  he  took  towards  the  accomplish- 
ment of  the  one,  was  calculated  at  the  same  time  to  advance  the 
other  two. 

Before  the  end  of  the  year  1801,  a  council,  composed  of  450 
deputies  of  the  Cisalpine  Republic,  was  assembled  at  Lyons,  in 
order  to  deliberate  as  to  the  changes  to  be  made  in  the  constitu- 
tion, which  was  assimilated  more  and  more  to  the  monarchical 
form.     In  the  mean  time,  the  Presidency  of  the  Republic  was 


PERIOD  IX.     A.  D.  1802—- 1810.  199 

conferred  on  Bonaparte  (January  26,  1802,)  under  the  title  of 
the  Italian  Republic. 

l\otwithstanding  the  easy  triumph  which  the  constitution  Q.t 
the  3'-ear  Eight  had  gained,  by  dissolving  the  Legislative  Body 
of  France,  dissension  was  not  long  m  breaking  out  among  its 
members ;  and  an  opposition  was  formed  which,  condemned  to 
silence,  had  no  other  means  of  manifesting  itself,  than  by  secret- 
ly thwarting  the  views  of  the  government.  There  was,  however, 
another  opposition  which  appeared  among  the  members  of  the 
tribunate,  and  which  greatly  irritated  Bonaparte,  by  openly  at- 
tacking his  projects  of  legislation.  The  period  had  now  arrived, 
wnen  one-fifth  part  of  the  members  of  these  two  bodies  were  to 
retire.  But  the  new  convention,  in  settling  this  partial  altera- 
tion, were  divided  as  to  the  mode  of  proceeding;  or  rather  it 
was  the  general  opinion,  that  the  ex-members  should  be  deter- 
mined by  lot.  This  temporary  vacancy  furnished  Bonaparte 
v/ith  a  pretext  for  getting  rid  of  all  those  whose  presence  had 
laid  him  under  any  sort  of  restraint.  A  decree  of  the  Conser- 
vative Senate,  of  the  22d  Ventose,  in  the  year  Ten  (March  13, 
1802,)  turned  out  twenty  of  the  tribunes,  and  sixty  of  the  le- 
gislators ;  and  supplied  their  places  with  members  taken  from 
the  lists  formed  by  the  Electoral  Colleges  of  the  Departments. 
Having  thus  discovered  what  advantages  might  accrue  to  him 
from  an  institution  which  Sieyes  had  contrived  for  balancing 
the  authority  of  the  government,  from  that  moment  he  convert- 
ed the  Senate  into  an  instrument  for  sanctioning  his  own  mea- 
sures. 

A  notification  from  the  French  ambassador  in  Switzerland 
announced  that  the  Valais  ehould  henceforth  form  an  Independ- 
ent Republic  (April  3.)  The  inhabitants  had  not  requested  this 
favour ;  it  was  granted  to  them  because  Bonaparte  wished  to 
get  possession  of  the  Simplon,  preparatory  to  the  union  of  that 
country  with  France.  The  second  decree  of  the  New  Consti- 
tution of  the  6th  Floreal  (April  26,)  granted  a  general  amnesty 
to  all  emigrants  who  should  return  within  the  space  of  three 
months,  and  take  the  oath  of  allegiance.  All  their  property  that 
remained  unsold  was  restored  to  them,  except  the  forests.  About 
a  thousand  individuals  were  excepted  from  this  act  of  justice, 
which  strengthened  the  authority  of  Bonaparte  by  conciliating 
the  public  opinion  in  his  favour. 

Immediately  after  this,  Bonaparte  submitted  to  the  Tribunate 
and  the  Legislative  Body  a  plan  for  the  institution  of  a  Legion 
of  Honour  (May  10.)  This  Legion  was  to  be  composed  of  fif- 
teen cohorts  of  Dignitaries  for  life.  The  First  Consul  was  the 
Chief  of  the  Legion ;  each  cohort  was  to  be  composed  of  seven 


200  CHAPTER  XI. 

Orand  Officers,  twenty  Commandants,  thirty  Officers,  and  three 
hiundred  Legionaries.  The  object  of  Bonaparte  evidently  waa 
10  establish  a  new  aristocracy.  But  the  minds  of  ihe  Council 
were  so  little  prepared  for  this  proposition,  and  so  contrary  was 
ii  to  the  republican  ideas  with  which  they  were  still  imbued,  thai 
it  passed  but  by  a  very  small  majority,  and  the  First  Consul 
liiouglii  proper  to  delay  carrying  it  into  execution. 

For  some  time  the  First  Consul  had  beennn  negotiation  with 
Pope  Pius  VII.  an  the  affairs  of  religion.  He  had  adjusted  a 
Concordat  with  his  Holiness,  subjecting  public  worship  to  the 
superintendence  of  ten  prelates  of  the  highest  rank,  and  fifty 
bishops.  This  famous  Concordat  was  signed  at  Paris  (July  15,^ 
and  ratified  at  Rome  (Aug.  15,)  1801.  It  was  afterwards  sub- 
mitted for  the  acceptance  of  the  French  nation,  and  adopted  by 
a  very  great  majority.  The  Sabbath  and  the  four  grand  festi- 
vals were  restored ;  and  from  this  date  the  government  ceased 
to  follow  the  decennary  system.  This  was  the  first  abandon- 
ment of  the  Republican  calendar.  Bonaparte  hoped  to  attach 
to  himself  the  sacerdotal  party,  the  order  most  disposed  for  pas- 
sive obedience  ;  and  in  this  manner  to  balance  the  clergy  against 
the  Royalists,  and  the  Pope  against  the  interests  of  the  Coali- 
tion. The  Concordat  was  ratified  with  great  pomp  in  the  church 
of  Notre  Dame  by  the  Senate,  the  Legislative  Body,  the  Tri- 
bune, and  the  public  functionaries.  The  First  Consul  appeared 
in  the  ancient  court  carriage,  with  all  the  circumstances  and  eti- 
quette of  royalty. 

Another  law  of  the  Constitution  of  the  30th  of  Floreal  (May 
20,)  sanctioned  the  Slave  Trade  in  the  colonies  restored  to 
France  by  the  treaty  of  Amiens,  and  in  the  French  colonies  sit- 
uated beyond  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope.  By  this  law,  however, 
slavery  was  not  restored  in  St.  Domingo.  That  colony  was  un- 
der the  dominion  of  the  Negroes,  who,  after  having  massacred 
the  Whites,  and  committed  barbarities  which  surjxiss  even  those 
of  the  French  Revolution,  had  succeeded  in  establishing  their 
independence.  After  the  preliminaries  signed  at  London,  Bo- 
naparte had  sent  an  expedition  to  that  Island,  having  on  board 
40,000  men,  commanded  by  his  brother-in-law  General  Le  Clerc. 
On  their  arrival  at  St.  Domingo,  the  French  took  possession  of 
the  town  of  Cape  Francois,  which  was  the  seat  of  government, 
as  well  as  of  several  other  places.  Toussaint  L'Ouverture,  ori- 
ginally a  slave,  and  raised  to  be  the  Chief  of  the  Blacks,  sub- 
mitted to  the  French  :  but  General  Le  Clerc,  having  afterwards 
arrested  him,  had  him  conveyed  to  France  where  he  died.  This 
circumstance  excited  the  Blacks  to  a  new  revolt  under  the  com- 
mand of  Christophe,  the  relative  and  friend  of  Toussaint :  and 


«HiuoD  IX.     A.  D.  1S02 — ISIO.  20J 

^fter  a  bloody  war,   France   lost  this  valuable  polony,  togethei 
with  a  numerous  army  and  many  commercial  advantages. 

After  the  conclusion  of  the  peace  of  Amiens,  the  Tribunate, 
purged  of  its  Republican  members,  signified  a  wish  that  some 
pledge  of  national  gratitude  should  be  offered  to  General  Bona- 
parte. The  Conservative  Senate  then  nominated  him  First 
Consul  for  ten  years.  When  this  decree  of  the  Senate  was  an- 
nounced to  him,  he  could  not  conceal  his  chagrin  ;  and  that  he 
might  not  be  compelled  to  accept  a  favour  which  he  disdained, 
he  demanded  that  the  decision  of  the  Senate  should  be  submitted 
for  the  sanction  of  the  people.  The  two  other  Consuls  were  re- 
solved to  consult  the  nation  (and  this  was  the  only  occasion  in 
which  they  ever  acted  on  their  own  authority,)  not  as  to  the  de- 
cree of  the  Senate,  but  on  the  question  whether  Bonaparte 
should  be  elected  Consul  for  life.  Out  of  3,577,379,  of  which 
the  primary  Assembly  was  composed,  3,568,885  voted  in  the 
affirmative,  and  only  8,494  in  the  negative.  Agreeable  to  this 
expression  of  the  public  voice,  the  Senate  proclaimed  Bonaparte 
First  Consul  for  life  (August  2,  1802.) 

Two  days  after,  the  third  decree  of  the  Senate  of  the  16tb 
Thermidor,  brought  the  government  still  nearer  the  monarchical 
form,  by  granting  to  the  First  Consul  great  influence  over  the 
Electoral  Assemblies,  with  the  power  of  ratifying  treaties,  grant 
ing  pardons,  nominating  senators  w^ithout  presentation,  appoint 
ing  the  Presidents  of  the  Electoral  Assemblies,    adding  to  th'' 
number  of  their   members,  and  even  proclaiming  his  own  sue 
cesser.     The  Tribunate,  which  still  appeared  somew^hat  formi 
dable,  was  reduced  to  fifty  members. 

Such,  in  the  space  of  two  years,  was  the  progress  of  arbitrary 
power.  In  the  course  of  1802,  the  union  of  three  different 
countries  to  France  was  either  accomplished,  or  in  a  state  Oi 
preparation.  The  first  was  that  of  the  Island  of  Elba,  of  which 
the  Kings  of  Naples  and  Sardinia  had  resigned  their  rights  ; 
the  second  was  that  of  Piedmont,  which  France  had  occupied 
since  9tb  December  1798  ;  and  lastly,  on  the  death  of  Ferdinand, 
Duke  of  Parma,  his  estates  were  taken  possession  of  by  France, 
as  having  devolved  to  her  in  virtue  of  the  treaty  of  Madrid  (Mar. 
21,  1801,)  although  they  were  not  annexed  to  that  country  till 
1808.  These  acqaisitions  were  made,  on  the  political  principle 
avowed  by  Bonaparte,  which  allowed  every  thing  to  be  done 
that  treaties  did  not  expressly  forbid. 

The  Peace  of  Campo  Formio  and  Luneville  had  recognised  the 
right  of  Switzerland  to  form  a  constitution  for  herself;  and  Aloyi 
Reding  happening  to  be  in  Paris  about  the  end  of  1801,  had  ob- 
tained the  consent  of  the  First  Consul  for  the  re-establishraent 


202  t'HAPTEK    XI. 

of  democracy  ia  the  petty  cantons.  From  that  time  two  parties 
rose  who  had  long  been  kept  down  by  force ;  and  Switzerland 
experienced  a  series  of  revolutions,  in  which  the  Unionists  or 
aristocratic  party,  and  the  Federalists  or  democratic,  alternatelj 
had  the  ascendancy.  At  length  a  new  Constitution,  more  aris- 
tocratic in  its  principles,  was  submitted  for  the  approbation  of  the 
people.  It  was  accepted  by  72,4-53  citizens,  and  rejected  by 
92,423;  but  as  167,172  individuals,  who  had  a  right  to  vote,, 
had  disdained  to  exercise  that  privilege,  the  Helvetic  -Senate 
thought  proper  to  reckon  all  the  absentees  among  the  acceptors  ; 
and  the  new  constitution  was  introduced  (July  3,)  as  having 
been  sanctioned  by  a  majority  of  the  people.  Banaparte  had 
given  the  Swiss  to  understand,  that  he  relied  on  their  willing- 
ness to  be  united  to  France  ;  but,  as  the  Helvetic  government 
made  a  pretence  of  nat  comprehending  that  invitation,  he  with- 
drew his  troops  from  Switzerland  (July  20.)  This  was  the  sig- 
nal for  a  civil  war.  The  democratic  cantons,  who  were  assem- 
bled at  Schweitz,  restored  the  ancient  confederation,  to  which 
most  of  the  old  cantons  acceded.  The  central  government,, 
having  no  other  support  than  the  new  cantons,  and  seeing  them- 
selves attacked  even  in  their  own  territories,  importuned  the 
assistance  of  the  First  Consul.  A  French  army,  under  the  com- 
mand of  Ney,  entered  Switzerland,  and  re-established  the  gov- 
ernment which  was  recommended  by  the  First  Consul.  Bona- 
parte constituted  himself  an  arbiter  between  the  two  parties,  and 
summoned  a  Helvetic  Council  at  Paris  (Feb.  19,  1803,)  and 
proclaimed  the  constitution  of  Switzerland,  known  by  the  name 
of  the  Act  of  Mediatio7i.  Switzerland  thus  became  a  federative 
Republic,  composed  of  nineteen  sovereign  cantons.  The  con- 
stitution of  each  was  more  or  less  democratic;  but  the  equality 
of  the  citizens  formed  the  basis  of  them  all.  Once  a  year,  a 
Diet  was  to  assemble  in  one  of  the  six  principal  cities  in  Swit- 
zerland in  rotation.  In  these  the  Landammmi,  or  chief  magis- 
trate of  the  district,  was  to  preside,  The  first  Landamman,  M. 
Louis  d'AfTry,  was  nominated  by  Bonaparte. 

Bonaparte  played  a  conspicuous  part  in  the  negotiations  for 
indemnifying  those  princes  who  had  lost  a  part  or  the  whole  of 
their  possessions,  by  the  cession  of  the  left  bank  of  the  Rhine. 
He,  in  concert  with  the  Emperor  Alexander,  was  the  principal 
arbiter  in  this  important  affair. 

Without  here  entering  into  the  details  of  these  negotiations, 
we  shall  merely  observe,  that  the  main  obstacle  which  had  im- 
peded the  negotiations  of  Ratisbon  being  removed  by  the  treaties 
which  France  concluded  on  this  occasion,  the  deputation  came 
to  a  final  conclusion,  known  by  the  name  of  the  Recess  (or  Re- 


PERIOD  IX.      A.  D.  1802—1810.  205 

s-olutions)  of  the  Deputation  (Feb.  25,  1803,)  by  which  the  ar 
?:angomerit  regarding  indemnities  and  territorial  exchanges  was 
brought  to  a  determination. 

The  war  between  France  and  Great  Britain  was  renewed  3n 
1503  Public  opinion  in  England  had  declared  agamsn,  the, 
peace  of  Amiens,  which  was  by  no  means  favourable  to  her, 
considering  the  sacrifices  which  she  had  made.  The  British 
mmistry  repented  having  agreed  to  the  surrender  of  Malta  and 
the  Cape  of  Good  Hope.  They  delayed  the  restoration  of  Malta 
under  pretext  that  the  guarantees  had  not  been  granted  without 
restriction.  The  arbitrary  and  violent  acts  which  Bonaparte 
had  committed  since  the  peace  ;  and  above  all,  the  annexation 
o\  Piedmont  to  France,  furnished  a  second  motive  for  net  evacu- 
ating an  island  so  important  from  its  position.  After  a  very 
spirited  negotiation,  Great  Britain  offered  to  restore  Malta  to 
its  own  inhabitants,  and  to  acknowledge  it  as  an  independent 
State  ;  only  for  the  term  of  ten  years,  however,  and  on  condition 
that  the  King  of  Naples  would  cede  Lampedosa.  The  French 
troops  were  to  evacuate  the  Batavian  and  Swiss  Republics.  On 
these  terms  England  would  recognise  the  Italian  and  Ligurian 
Republics,  and  the  King  of  Etruria.  His  Majesty  of  Sardinia 
was  to  receive  an  adequate  territorial  provision  in  Italy.  The 
first  Consul  having  rejected  this  ultimatum,  war  was  declared 
(May  18,  1803,)  and  all  the  English  who  were  travelling  or  re- 
siding in  France,  arrested  and  detained  as  hostages. 

Charles  IV.  King  of  Spain,  by  the  treaty  of  St.  Ildefonso,  had 
ceded  Louisiana  to  France.  When  this  news  arrived  in  Amer- 
ica, it  spread  consternation  in  the  Republic  of  the  United  States. 
President  Jefferson  felt  great  reluctance  in  consenting  to  oppose, 
by  a  military  force,  the  entry  of  the  French  into  a  country  which 
would  give  them  the  command  of  the  Mississippi.  To  prevent 
this,  and  from  other  motives,  he  directed  the  American  minister 
in  Paris  to  enter  into  a  negotiation  with  the  French  government 
for  the  purchase  of  Louisiana,  which  was  effected  at  Paris  (Sept. 
30,  1803.) 

A  French  army,  which  was  assembled  in  the  Batavian  Re- 
public under  the  command  of  General  Mortier,  was  despatched 
immediately  after  the  declaration  of  war,  to  occupy  the  Electo- 
rate of  Hanover,  the  patrimonial  dominions  of  the  King  of  Great 
Britain.  The  Government  of  that  country  concluded  a  capitu- 
lation at  Suhlingen  (June  3,)  in  virtue  of  which^^ie  native  troops 
retired  beyond  the  Elbe,  while  the  French  army^^ere  to  o.cupy 
the  country  and  its  fortresses,  and  be  maintaine^'by  the  nih-Q.^'i- 
tants.  They  likewise  took  possession  of  Cuxhaven  and  Retzc-^ 
!.  ;.:!,  bolonging  to  the  city  of  Hamburg.     The  German  Empire 


204  CHAPTER    XI. 

T«-hich  had  the  mortification  of  seeing  its  interests  re^la.ed  by 
two  foreign  powers,  did  not  even  protest  against  this  violation  oi 
>ts  leriitcry.  Bonaparte,  deceived  in  his  expectation  of  rendering 
the  Cahinet  of  London  compliant,  annulled  the  capitulation  of 
Suhlingen,  and  ordered  Mortier  to  attack  Count  Walmoden,  who 
commanded  the  Hanoverian  army.  The  latter,  however,  laid 
acwn  their  arms,  in  consequence  of  a  convention  which  was 
signed  at  Artlenberg  (July  5.)  After  these  proceedings,  the 
moutk«i  of  the  Elbe  and  Weser  were  immediately  blockaded  by 
an  English  squadron,  which  prevented  tlie  invaders  from  bene- 
fiting by  the  navigation  of  those  rivers. 

England  had  generously  offered  to  acknowledge  the  neutrality 
of  Holland,  provided  she  could  get  the  French  troops  to  evacu- 
ate her  territory.  This  measure,  however  proved  disastrous  in 
its  result  for  the  Republic.  Bonaparte  laid  them  under  obliga- 
tion to  maintain  a  body  of  34,000  men,  both  French  and  Bata- 
vians  ;  and  to  furnish  five  ships  of  war  and  five  frigates,  with  a 
number  of  transports  and  sloops  of  war,  for  conveying  to  Eng- 
land 61,000  men  and  4000  horses.  After  the  conclusion  of  peace 
with  the  Emperor  of  Russia  (Oct.  8,  1801,)  Bonaparte  had 
withdrawn  his  troops  from  the  kingdom  of  Naples  ;  but,  by  a 
forced  interpretation  of  the  treaty  of  Florence,  he  pretended  that 
he  had  a  right  to  send  them  back  whenever  he  should  happen 
to  be  at  war  with  England.  Ferdinand  IV.  was  obliged  to  suc- 
cumb ;  and  in  consequence  of  an  arrangement  with  General  St. 
Cyr  (June  25,  1803,)  the  French  again  took  possession  of 
Abruzzi. 

The  loss  of  Trinidad,  and  the  selling  of  Louisiana  to  the 
United  States  of  America,  had  created  no  small  coolness  between 
the  Court  of  Madrid  and  Bonaparte.  Already  had  he  brought 
an  army  near  to  Bayonne,  which,  under  the  command  of  Gen- 
eral Augereau,  threatened  Spain.  She,  however,  succeeded  in 
evading  the  storm.  As  it  was  of  much  importance  for  her  to 
avoid  war  with  England,  and  on  the  other  hand,  as  Bonaparte 
had  more  need  of  money  than  of  ships,  especially  considering 
the  nature  of  the  attack  which  he  meditated  upon  England,  it 
was  agreed  by  a  secret  treaty  signed  at  IMadrid  (Oct.  30,)  that 
Charles  IV.  should  substitute  money,  instead  of  the  succours 
which  the  nature  of  his  former  engagement  bound  him  to  fur- 
nish. The  amount  of  this  subsidy  is  not  officially  known.  The 
hopes  which  this  Monarch  had  entertained  of  escaping  from  the 
war  were  sadly  disappointed.  He  was  dragged  into  it  towards 
the  end  of  the  following  year. 

Portugal  likewise  purchased  her  neutrality,  by  a  convention 
which  was  signed  between  General  Lannes,  Bonaparte's  minis 


PERIOD  IX.     A.  D.  1802 — 181C.  20d 

ter  at  Lisbon,  and  Don  Manuel  Pinto ;  the  contents  of  which 
are  not  known  with  certainty. 

From  the  breaking-  of  the  peace  of  Amiens  to  the  second  war 
with  Austria,  Bonaparte  had  employed  himself  about  a  project 
for  effecting-  a  landing  in  England,  for  which  he  had  made  im 
mense  preparations.  All  the  ship-carpenters  throughout  France 
•were  put  in  requisition  for  the  equipment  of  a  flotilla  intended 
to  convey  the  armies  of  the  Republic  to  the  English  shores.  A 
multitudinous  army,  called  the  Army  of  Eiigland,  was  assem- 
bk^d  on  the  coasts,  extensive  camps  were  formed,  and  convoys 
prepared  for  protecting  the  transportation  of  these  invaders.  In 
England,  under  the  ministry  of  Mr.  Pitt,  vigorous  measures  of 
defence  were  adopted,  by  setting  on  foot  a  regular  army  of 
180,000  men.  The  English  Admirals  frequently  harassed  the 
French  shipping,  and  bombarded  the  towns  situated  upon  the 
coasts.  But  from  this  there  did  not  happen  any  result  of  im- 
portance. 

St.  Lucia,  St.  Peter,  Miquelon,  and  Tobago,  as  also  the 
Dutch  colonies  of  Demerara,  Essequibo,  and  Berbice,  fell  into 
the  hands  of  the  English  in  the  beginning  of  the  year  1803. 
General  Rochambeau,  who  had  succeeded  Le  Clerc,  concluded 
a  capitulation  at  St.  Domingo,  with  Dessalines  the  B'ack  Chief, 
for  the  evacuation  of  Cape  Frangois  ;  but  as  the  English  Ad- 
miral Duckworth  blockaded  it  by  sea,  he  was  obliged  to  sur- 
render with  his  whole  army,  which  was  transported  to  Eng- 
land. Dessalines,  thus  relieved  from  the  French,  proclaimed 
the  independence  of  St.  Domingo,  or  the  island  of  Hayti,  of 
which  he  assumed  the  government,  under  the  title  of  Governor- 
General,  for  life. 

Meantime,  the  plan  of  Bonaparte  for  disengaging  himsel 
from  those  political  restraints  which  fettered  his  ambition,  was 
growing  to  maturity.  Three  parties  divided  France — the  Roy- 
alists, the  Systematic  Republicans,  and  the  Jacobins.  Of  the 
two  first,  the  one  had  always  entertained  hopes  that  Bonaparte 
would  recall  the  Bourbons  ;  and  the  other,  that  the  moment  was 
approaching  when  true  liberty  would  take  the  place  of  despotism. 
General  Moreau  was  regarded  as  the  head  of  this  party,  if  his 
character  had  at  all  made  him  a  proper  person  to  play  an  active 
game  in  public  affairs.  Bonaparte,  who  desired  neither  King 
nor  Republic,  was  convinced  that  he  could  only  arrive  at  his  pur- 
pose by  attaching  to  himself  the  Jacobin  party.  In  order  to  in- 
spire them  with  confidence,  he  felt  that  it  was  necessary  to  give 
them  a  pledge ;  this  was,  to  be  continually  at  variance  with  the 
other  two  parties,  which  they  equally  detested. 

Bonaparte  resolved  to  ruin  Moreau,  whom  he  mistrusted 

VOL.  II  18 


?06  CHAPTER  XI. 

PichegTu,  Georges,  Cadoudal,  and  other  Royalist  Chiefs,  se- 
cretly entered  France,  believing  that  the  time  was  now  come 
for  re-establishing  royalty,  and  that  Moreau  would  place  him- 
self at  the  head  of  the  enterprise.  Pichegrii  twice  saw  his  old 
friend  Moreau,  who  refused  to  take  any  part  in  a  plot  against 
the  Government ;  but  he  was  reluctant  to  betray  this  excellent 
man,  whom  Bonaparte  hated,  and  who  had  been  excepted  by 
name  from  the  general  amnesty.  His  silence  was  sufficient  to 
entangle  him  in  a  pretended  conspiracy,  with  which  the  tribu- 
nals resounded. 

Pichegru  kept  himself  secreted  in  Paris  for  some  days,  but 
through  the  treachery  of  a  friend  he  was  at  length  discovered 
arrested,  and  committed  to  prison,  where  he  was  found  dead,  on 
the  morning  of  April  7th.,  a  black  handkerchief  being  twisted 
around  his  neck,  and  tightened  by  the  twisting  of  a  stick.  No 
proof  appeared  against  Moreau  of  taking  any  part  in  the  con- 
spiracy ;  but  his  own  confession,  that  he  had  seen  Pichegru 
twice,  was  deemed  sufficient  by  his  judges  to  justify  his  con- 
demnation, for  a  high,  although  not  capital  crime  ;  he  was  sen- 
tenced to  two  years  imprisonment,  which,  by  the  intercession  of 
his  friends  was  commuted  for  the  same  period  of  exile.  This 
distinguished  General  made  choice  of  America,  as  his  place  of 
exile. 

At  this  time  another  occurrence  took  place,  which  must  ever 
form  the  darkest  chapter  in  the  history  of  Bonaparte — the  arrest, 
condemnation,  and  execution  of  the  Duke  d'Enghien.  This 
prince  was  living  in  retirement  in  the  castle  of  Ettenheim,  in 
the  Dutchy  of  Baden,  a  neutral  territory.  On  the  evening  of 
the  14th  of  March,  a  troop  of  French  soldiers  passed  the  fron- 
tier, surrounded  the  castle,  and  seized  the  prince,  and  all  his  at- 
tendants. He  was  immediately  conveyed  to  Strasburgh,  and 
from  thence  after  a  confinement  of  three  days  to  Paris,  where  he 
was  kept  for  a  few  hours  in  the  Temple,  and  then  removed  to 
fhe  neighbouring  castle  of  Vincennes.  On  the  night  of  the 
20th  he  was  charged  by  a  military  court,  of  which  General  Hul- 
lin  was  president,  with  having  fought  against  France,  being  in 
the  pay  of  England,  plotting  against  the  internal  and  external 
safety  of  the  Republic,  and  having  conspired  against  the  life  of 
the  chief  Consul.  The  court  pronounced  him  guilty  ;  the  de- 
cision was  immediately  despatched  to  Bonaparte,  and  the  sen- 
'ence  "  condemned  to  deg'^^h,"  which  was  written  on  the  back  of 
it.  carried  into  execution  xt  six  o'clock  the  following  morning. 
The  charges  alleged  against  him  were  unsupported  by  any 
evidence  ;  but  he  persevered  in  declaring,  that  he  would  ever 
eustam  the  rights  of  his  family,  and  that  as  a  Condc,  he  could 
'Jever  enter  France,  but  with  arms  in  his  hand. 


i-ERioD  IX.     A,  D.  1802—1810.  207 

This  last  act  paved  the  way  for  Bonaparte  to  ascend  the 
V.hrone.  France  had  scarcely  recovered  from  the  stupor  in  which 
she  had  been  plunged  by  the  judicial  murder  of  a  Bourbon, 
when  the  Conservative  Senate,  who  had  perceived  that  the  best 
way  to  please  Bonaparte  was  not  to  wait  till  he  should  make  his 
wishes  known  to  them,  presented  an  address,  inviting  him  to 
complete  the  institutions  necessary  for  tranquillizing  the  State 
(March  27.)  At  this  signal  of  flattery,  many  of  the  Orders  of 
the  State  were  eager  to  express  their  desire  that  the  power 
which  was  vested  in  Bonaparte,  should  be  conferred  on  him  by 
a  hereditary  title.  One  month  was  allowed  to  elapse,  for  pre- 
paring the  public  mind  for  the  result.  It  was  then  that  the  First 
Consul,  in  replying  to  the  address  of  the  Senate,  desired  these 
Orders  to  explain  themselves  more  clearl3^  The  Tribunate 
took  the  merit  of  anticipating  this  explanation,  by  voting  the  re- 
establishment  of  hereditary  monarchy  in  favour  of  Bonaparte 
and  his  family  (April  30.)  The  Senate,  not  wishing  to  be  be- 
hind in  complaisance,  acceded  to  the  desire  ;  and  a  decree  o^ 
fhat  Body  declared  Bonaparte  Emperor  of  the  French  (Mar 
18;)  conferring  on  him  the  Imperial  dignity,  to  be  hereditary 
in  himself,  and  his  lawful  or  adopted  sons,  to  the  exclusion  of 
his  daughters  ;  and  failing  the  males,  to  his  brothers  Joseph  and 
Louis,  and  their  male  descen-dants. 

The  same  decree  of  the  Senate  made  several  important 
changes  in  the  constitution,  with  the  view  of  rendering  it  per- 
fectly monarchical.  Bonaparte  accepted  the  dignity  which 
had  been  conferred  on  him.  He  only  asked,  that  the  nation 
should  be  consulted  upon  the  question  of  hereditary  right. 
Wishing  to  legalize  this  attempt  in  the  eyes  of  the  people  ;  he 
invited  the  sovereign  Pontiff  to  Paris  to  crown  him.  This  ce- 
remony took  place  in  the  Church  of  Notre-Dame  (Dec.  2,  1804 ;) 
and  contrary  to  the  general  custom,  Bonaparte  put  the  crown 
on  his  own  head,  after  which  he  placed  it  upon  that  of  his 
spouse.  Some  weeks  afterwards,  in  opening  the  Session  ol 
the  Legislative  Body,  he  solemnly  declared,  that,  as  he  was  satis- 
fied with  his  grandeur,  he  would  make  no  more  additions  to 
the  Empire. 

The  base  transaction  of  ^Ist  March  was  followed  up  by  an 
exchange  of  v^ery  violent  letters, between  the  Russian  ambassador 
at  Paris,  and  the  minister  of  Bonaparte.  In  addition  to  the  indig- 
nation which  that  event  had  excited  in  Alexander,  and  which 
the  prevailing  tone  of  the  notes  of  the  French  minister  were  not 
calculated  to  diminish ;  there  was  a  dissatisfaction,  on  account 
of  the  non-execution  of  many  of  the  conditions  agreed  to  m  the 
tieaty  of  10th  October  1801,     Alexander  demanded,  that  th 


208  CHAPTER  XL 

French  trov»ps  should  be  withdrawn  fi-crn  the  kingdom  of  Napies , 
that  Bonaparte  should  concert  with  him  as  to  the  principles  upon 
which  the  affairs  of  Italy  were  to  be  regulated ;  that  without  de- 
lay he  should  indemnify  the  King  of  Sardinia,  and  evacuate 
Hanover  (July  27,  1804.)  To  these,  Bonaparte  only  replied  by 
recriminations,  when  the  two  Courts  recalled  their  respective 
ambassadors.  The  Emperor  had  not  waited  for  this  opportunity 
to  employ  means  for  setting  bounds  to  the  ambition  of  Bona- 
parte. By  the  declarations  interchanged  betwixt  the  Courts  of 
St.  Petersburg  and  Berlin  (May  3,  and  24,)  it  was  agreed,  that 
they  should  not  allow  the  French  troops  in  Germany  to  go  be- 
yond the  frontier  of  Hanover  ;  and  that  should  this  happen,  each 
of  these  two  Courts  should  employ  40,000  men  to  repel  such  an 
attempt.  The  Prussian  declaration  added,  moreover,  that  there 
should  be  no  dispute  as  to  the  countries  situated  to  the  west  of 
the  Weser.  Not  content  with  having  thus  provided  for  the  se- 
curity of  the  North  of  Germany,  the  Emperor  Alexander  imme- 
diately concerted  measures  with  Austria,  with  the  view  of 
opposing  a  barrier  to  the  usurpations  of  France.  Declarations, 
in  the  shape  of  a  convention,  were  exchanged  between  these  two 
Courts  before  the  end  of  the  year ;  and  they  agreed  to  set  on  foot 
an  army  of  350,000  men. 

The  maritime  war,  like  that  of  1803,  was  limited  to  threats^ 
and  immense  preparations  on  the  part  of  Bonaparte,  and  on  the 
part  of  Sir  Sidney  Smith,  to  attempt  preventing  the  union  of 
the  French  fleet,  or  for  burning  their  shipping  in  their  own  ports. 
The  English  took  possession  of  the  Dutch  colony  of  Surinam 
(May  4;)  and  towards  the  end  of  the  year  commenced  hostilities 
against  Spain. 

The  first  six  months  of  the  year  1805  were  marked  by  new  ag- 
grandizements on  the  part  of  Bonaparte  in  Italy.  1.  A  decree  of 
the  Estates  of  the  Italian  Republic  assembled  at  Paris  (Mar.  18,) 
proclaimed  Napoleon  Bonaparte  King  of  Italy ;  and  it  was  stipu- 
lated that  he  should  remit  that  crown  to  one  of  his  legitimate  or 
adopted  sons,  so  soon  as  the  foreign  troops  should  have  evacuated 
the  kingdom  of  Naples  (where  there  were  no  foreigners  except 
the  French  troops,)  the  Seven  I^ands  and  Malta;  and  that 
henceforth  the  crowns  of  France  and  Italy  should  never  be  united 
in  the  same  person.  Bonaparte  repaired  to  Milan  (May  26,) 
where  he  was  crowned  with  the  iron  crown  of  the  Emperors  of 
Germany,  who  were  kings  of  Italy.  Eugene  Beauharnais,  the 
son  of  the  Empress  Josephine,  was  appointed  his  viceroy.  2.  He 
conferred  the  principality  of  Piombino,  under  the  title  of  a  here- 
ditary fief  of  the  French  empire,  on  Eliza  Bacciochi  his  sister, 
and  her  male  descendants  (May  25.)  This  completed  the  spolia- 


^     PERIOD  IX.     A.  D.  1802—1810.  209 

liLvn  ot  the  House  of  Buoncompagni,  to  whom  that  title  and  es« 
tide  belonged,  together  with  the  greater  part  of  the  Isie  of  Elba. 
*S.  The  Senate  and  people  of  the  Ligurian  Republic  demanded 
voluntarily,  as  is  said,  to  be  united  to  the  French  Empire.  Their 
request  was  agreed  to  (June  5;)  and  the  territory  of  that  Repub- 
lic was  divided  into  three  departments.  4.  The  Republic  of 
Lucca  demanded  from  Bonaparte  a  new  constitution,  and  a  prince 
of  his  family.  By  a  constitutional  statute  (June  23,)  that  Repub- 
tic  was  erected  into  a  principality,  under  the  protection  of  France  ; 
and  conferred  as  a  hereditary  right  on  Felix  Bacciochi,  and  his 
wife  Ehza  Bonaparte.  6.  The  States  of  Parma  seemed  destined 
to  be  given  up  by  way  of  compensation  to  the  King  of  Sardinia? 
together  with  the  territory  of  Genoa  ;  but  Bonaparte,  finding 
himself  involved  with  the  Emperor  Alexander,  caused  them  to 
be  organized  according  to  the  system  of  France. 

It  was  impossible  for  the  sovereigns  of  Europe  not  to  unite 
against  a  conqueror  who  seemed  to  apply  to  politics  that  maxim" 
of  the  civil  law,  which  makes  every  thing  allowable  that  the 
laws  do  not  forbid.  We  have  already  seen  that  Russia  and 
Austria  had  concerted  measures  for  setting  bounds  to  these  usur- 
pations. But  it  was  William  Pitt,  who  was  restored  to  the 
British  ministry  in  the  month  of  May  1804,  that  conceived  the 
plan  of  the  third  coalition.  Disdaining  the  petty  resources  which 
the  preceding  ministrj^  had  employed  for  harassing  France,  he 
conceived  the  idea  of  a  grand  European  League,  for  the  pur- 
pose of  rescuing  from  the  dominion  of  Bonaparte  the  countries 
which  France  had  subdued  since  1792,  and  for  reducing  that 
kingdom  within  its  ancient  limits.  With  regard  to  the  territories 
which  were  to  be  taken  from  France,  he  proposed  arrangements, 
by  means  of  which  they  might  form  a  barrier  against  her  future 
projects  of  aggrandizement ;  and  finally,  to  introduce  into  Europe 
a  general  system  of  public  right.  In  fact,  the  plan  of  Mr.  Pitt, 
which  was  communicated  to  the  Russian  government  (June  19, 
1S05,)  was  the  same  as  that  which,  ten  years  afterwards,  was 
executed  by  the  Grand  Alliance.  If  this  plan  failed  in  1805,  it 
was  only  because  they  calculated  on  the  participation  of  Prussia, 
as  an  indispensable  condition;  which  they  did  not  give  up  when 
that  power  had  declared  her  resolution  to  preserve  her  neutrality. 

By  the  treaty  of  April  11th,  between  Russia  and  Great  Britain, 
it  was  agreed  that  the  Emperor  Alexander  should  make  another 
attempt  for  arranging  matters  with  Bonaparte,  so  as  to  prevent 
the  war.  M.  de  Novosilzoff,  one  of  the  Russian  ministers,  was 
sent  to  Paris.  On  his  arrival  at  Berlin,  he  received  the  pass- 
ports which  the  cabinet  of  Prussia  had  procured  for  him  at  t'a,iiv ; 
but  at  the  same  time,  he  received  an  order  from  St.  Pettr^bcxiS 

VOL.  II  ^8^ 


310  CHAPTER  XL 

not  to  continue  his  journey.  The  annexation  of  the  Liguri?m 
Kepublic  to  France,  at  the  moment  when  they  were  making  con- 
ciliatory overtures  to  Bonaparte,  appeared  too  serious  an  outrage 
for  the  Emperor  to  prosecute  farther  negotiations.  War  was 
consequently  resolved  on. 

The  preparations  for  the  invasion  of  England  had  been  ear- 
ned on  for  some  time  vvith  extraordinary  vigour.  Every  thing 
seemed  to  announce,  that  Bonaparte  meant  to  attempt  that  peril- 
cuss  enterprise.  Part  of  his  troops  had  already  embarked  ( Aug- 
27,)  when  all  of  a  sudden  the  camp  at  Boulogne  was  broken  upf, 
and  the  army  directed  to  move  towards  the  Rhine,  which  it  pass- 
ed within  a  month  after.  Austria  had  set  on  foot  three  armies. 
The  Archduke  Charles  commanded  that  of  Italy,  where  it  was 
expected  a  decisive  blow  was  to  be  struck ;  the  second  army, 
under  the  command  of  the  Archduke  John,  was  stationed  in  the 
Tyrol,  to  maintain  a  communication  with  the  third  army  on  the 
Inn,  which  was  commanded  nominally  by  the  Archduke  Fer- 
dinand the  Emperor's  cousin,  but  in  reality  by  General  Mack, 
The  first  Russian  army  under  the  command  of  General  Kutusofl" 
had  arrived  in  Gallicia,  and  was  continuing  its  march  in  al" 
haste.  It  was  followed  by  another  under  Michelson.  The  Rus 
sian  troops  in  Dalmatia  were  to  attempt  a  landing  in  Italy. 

The  army  of  Mack  passed  the  Inn  (Sept.  8.)  They  had 
reckoned  on  the  co-operation  of  the  Elector  of  Bavaria  ;  but  that 
prince,  who  was  always  distrustful  of  Austria,  abandoned  the 
cause  of  the  allies,  and  retired  with  his  troops  into  Franconia. 
The  Electors  of  Wurtemberg  and  Baden  were  desirous  of  con- 
cluding treaties  of  alliance  with  Bonaparte,  after  he  had  passed 
the  Rhine  ;  these  treaties  were  signed  at  Ludwigsburg  and  Et- 
tingen  (Oct.  4,  and  10.)  The  plan  of  Bonaparte  was  to  cut  off 
the  army  of  Mack  who  had  entered  into  Swabia,  from  that  of 
Kutusoff  which  was  marching  through  Austria.  In  this  he  suc- 
ceeded, by  presuming  to  violate  the  Prussian  territory.  Mar- 
mont  who  had  come  by  way  of  Mayence,  and  Bernadotte  who 
had  conducted  the  army  into  Franconia,  where  they  were  joined 
by  the  Bavarians,  traversed  the  country  of  Anspach,  and  came 
thus  on  the  rear  of  the  Austrian  army  (Oct.  6.)  From  that  date 
scarcely  a  day  passed  without  a  battle  favourable  to  Uie  French. 
Several  divisions  of  the  Austrians  were  obliged  to  lay  down 
their  arms.  Mack,  who  had  thrown  himself  into  Ulm,  lost  all 
resolution,  and  signed  a  capitulation  (Oct.  17,)  by  which  he  pro 
mised  to  surrender  if  assistance  did  not  arrive  within  eight  days. 
He  did  not,  however,  wait  for  this  delay.  By  a  second  capitulation 
two  days  after,  he  surrendered  on  the  spot  with  25,000  men. 

The  army  of  Mack  was  totally  destroyed,  except  6000  caval- 


PERIOD  IX.     A.  D.  1802—1810.  211 

ry,  with  which  the  Archduke  Ferdinand  had  opened  himself  u 
Daseage  through  Franconia  ;  and  20.000  others  with  which  Kien- 
raayer  had  retired  to  Braunau,  where  he  was  met  by  the  van- 
guard of  KutusofF.  These  two  generals  continued  their  retrp.ai 
The  Rassian  army  repassed  the  Danube  near  Grein  (Nov.  9,: 
arRl  directed  their  march  towards  the  Morau.  A  few  days  afte-} 
[Hov.  33,)  Vienna,  the  capital  of  Austria,  fell  into  the  hands  oi 
the  French.  They  passed  the  Danube  near  that  city,  and  par- 
si7ed  the  Russians.  In  the  meantime  General  Buxhowden  v^-ith 
ihe  second  Russian  army,  having  joined  KutusofF  at  Olmutz,  on 
the  same  day  that  the  Emperor  Alexander  arrived  in  the  camp, 
they  conceived  themselves  strong  enough  to  encounter  the  ene- 
my, and  immediately  discontinued  their  retreat.  The  battle  of 
Austerlitz,  which  Bonaparte  fought  (Dec.  2,)  with  the  combi- 
ned army  of  the  Austrians  and  Russians,  decided  the  campaign 
in  his  favour. 

Meantime  Bonaparte  found  himself  in  a  position  which  might 
become  dangerous.  When  the  Archduke  Charles  had  perceived 
that  the  French  had  concentrated  their  forces  on  the  Danube,  he 
sent  supplies  to  General  Mack,  and  commenced  his  retreat  from 
Italy,  that  he  might  be  nearer  the  centre  of  hostilities.  This 
retreat  he  could  not  effect,  except  by  hazarding  several  engage- 
ments with  Massena,  who  continued  the  pursuit.  When  near 
Cilley  he  formed  a  junction  with  the  Archduke  John,  who  had 
retreated  from  the  Tyrol  (Nov.  27.)  The  united  armies  of  these 
two  princes  amounted  to  80,000  men,  with  whom  they  marched 
towards  Vienna;  while  the  Hungarians  rose  en  inasse  to  defend 
their  sovereign.  The  next  day  after  the  battle  of  Austerlitz,  the 
Russian  army  received  a  reinforcement  of  12,000  men.  An 
army  composed  of  Prussians,  Saxons,  and  Hessians  were  on  the 
point  of  penetrating  into  Franconia  ;  and  some  corps  of  Prus- 
sians, Russians,  Swedes,  Hanoverians,  and  English,  had  joined 
a  second  army  in  the  north  of  Germany,  ready  to  invade  Bel- 
gium. Moreover,  the  English  and  the  Russians  were  preparnig 
to  effect  a  landing  in  the  kingdom  of  Naples. 

It  was  in  this  critical  moment  that  the  Cabinet  of  Vienna 
signed  an  armistice  at  Austerlitz,  by  which  they  engaged  to  send 
back  the  Russian  army,  and  to  quell  the  insurrection  in  Hun- 
gary. Within  twenty  days  after,  peace  was  signed  at  Presburg 
between  Austria  and  France  (Dec.  26.)  The  former  acknow- 
ledged all  the  claims  of  Bonaparte,  and  ceded  to  him,  to  form  a 
part  of  the  kingdom  of  Italy,  the  ancient  states  of  Venice,  witli 
Dalmatia  and  Albania  ;  and  to  his  allies,  the  Elector  of  Baden 
and  the  new  Kings  of  Bavaria  and  Wurtemberg,  the  Tyrol  and 
all  her  hereditary  possessions  in  Swabia. 


'2l2  CHAPTER  XL 

The  violation  of  the  Prussian  territory  in  Francos ia,  had  ex 
cited  the  most  lively  indignation  at  Berlin.  The  King  resolved, 
sword  in  hand,  to  avenge  this  outrage  against  his  royal  dignity. 
The  Prussian  troops  occupied  Hanover,  which  the  French  had 
lUST  evacuated  ;  and  that  country  was  restored  to  its  legitimate 
sL'-^ereign.  A  body  of  Russians,  for  whom  they  had  til]  then 
vainly  demanded  a  passage  through  Silesia,  obtained  permission 
to  iraverbe  that  province  to  join  the  army  of  Kutusoff.  The 
Emperor  Alexander  had  himself  arrived  at  Berlin  (Oci.  25,)  as 
well  as  the  Archduke  Anthonv,  Grand-Master  of  the  Teutonic 
Knights.  A  convention  was  concluded  at  Potsdam  (Nov.  3,) 
between  Alexander  and  Frederic  III.  of  Prussia.  This  latter 
prince  joined  the  coalition,  with  the  reservation  of  a  preliminary 
attempt  to  obtain  the  assent  of  Bonaparte  to  conditions  extremely 
equitable.  In  case  these  were  rejected,  Frederic  promised  to 
take  the  field  v/ith  180,000  men,  who  in  fact,  were  put  in  a  con- 
dition to  march  at  the  earliest  notice.  Count  Haugwitz,  who 
had  been  sent  to  Vienna  as  the  bearer  of  overtures  of  peace  to 
Bonaparte,  accompanied  v/ith  an  energetic  declaration,  took  it 
into  his  head  that  it  would  be  prejudicial  to  the  interests  of  Prus- 
sia were  he  to  press  the  object  of  his  commission;  he  resolved, 
therefore,  to  wait  the  course  of  events.  After  the  truce  of  Aus- 
terlitz,  he  took  it  upon  him  to  change  the  system  of  his  govern- 
ment. Without  having  any  sort  of  authority,  he  concluded  an 
alliance  with  Bonaparte  at  Vienna  (Dec.  15,)  for  the  guarantee 
of  their  respective  states,  and  for  those  of  Bavaria  and  the  Porte. 
Prussia  was  to  cede  the  principality  of  Anspach  to  Bavaria ; 
that  of  Neufchatel  to  France  ;  and  that  of  Cleves  to  a  prince  of 
the  Empire,  whom  Bonaparte  might  name.  In  return  Prussia 
was  to  get  possession  of  the  Electorate  of  Hanover. 

When  Count  Haugwitz  arrived  at  Berlin  with  the  treaty, 
Frederic  at  first  was  inclined  to  reject  it  ;  but  the  minister  having 
represented  to  him  the  danger  to  which  this  would  expose  him 
in  the  present  state  of  affairs,  the  King  rc''ictantly  consented  to 
ratif)'  the  treaty  ;  provided  a  clause  was  aa  '  id,  that  the  occupa- 
tion of  the  provinces  mutually  ceded  should  only  be  announced 
as  provisional,  until  the  King  of  England  should  give  his  assent, 
by  a  future  treaty,  to  the  cession  of  Hanover.  It  was  in  this 
manner  that  Prussia,  in  effect,  got  possession  of  that  Electorate 
(Jan.  27,  1806.)  Meantime,  Count  Haugwitz,  who  had  repaired 
to  Paris,  found  it  impossible  to  obtain  the  acceptance  of  Bona- 
parte to  the  ratification  of  the  treaty  so  modified.  He  then 
signed  a  second  convention  (Feb.  15,)  by  which  Prussia  enga- 
ged to  declare  the  occupation  of  Hanover  definitive  ;  and  to  shut 
the  rivers  in  the  North  of  Germany  against  the  English.     The 


PERIOD  IX.      A.  D.  1802  -1810.  213 

King  of  Prussia,  who  had  already  disbanded  his  amiy,.  found 
himself  in  a  situation  that  obliged  him  to  ratify  that  arrangement. 

Bonaparte  had  made  prodigious  efforts  to  revive  the  French 
marine.  The  fleet  at  Kochefort,  commanded  by  Admiral  Mis- 
siessi,  had  taken  the  opportunity  of  sailing  from  that  port  (Jan. 
11,  1805.)  They  had  set  out  with  the  intention  of  levying  con- 
tributions in  the  Little  Antilles,  belonging  to  the  English  ;  and 
after  throwing  in  supplies  to  General  Ferrand  who  still  kept 
possession  of  St.  Domingo,  they  had  returned  without  accident 
to  Rochefort.  The  fleet  at  Toulon,  consisting  of  fourteen  ves- 
sels of  the  line,  comnTanded  by  Admiral  Villeneuve,  and  hav- 
ing on  board  troops  under  the  command  of  General  Lauriston, 
probably  destined  for  Ireland,  had  repaired  to  Cadiz  (April  9,) 
where  they  were  joined  by  the  Spanish  fleet  under  Admiral 
Gravina.  Next  day  the  two  combined  fleets  sailed  from  that 
port,  but  afterwards  separated.  That  under  Villeneuve  had 
proceeded  to  Martinico ;  but  being  apprised  of  the  arrival  of 
Lord  Nelson  at  Barbadoes.  Villeneuve  again  joined  the  Span- 
ish Admiral,  when  the  fleet  returned  to  Europe.  An  engage 
ment  took  place  near  Cape  Finisterre  (July  22,)  which  was 
honourable  to  Sir  Robert  Calder,  the  English  Admiral,  who 
captured  two  ships  of  the  line.  Being  soon  after  considerably 
reinforced,  and  amounting  to  thirty-five  ships  of  the  line,  they 
set  sail  for  Cadiz,  where  a  partial  blockade  was  maintained  for 
some  time  by  Calder  and  Collingwood.  But  Nelson,  who  had 
been  invested  with  the  command  of  the  English  fleet,  induced 
the  enemy,  by  means  of  a  pretended  retreat,  to  leave  their  sta- 
tion. An  engagement  took  place  off  Cape  Trafalgar  (Oct.  21,) 
which  cost  the  English  Admiral  his  life,  but  which  ruined  the 
combined  fleet.  Villeneuve  was  made  prisoner,  and  Gravina 
fled  towards  Cadiz  with  ten  ships.  This  glorious  victory  se- 
cured to  England  the  command  of  the  sea. 

When  Bonaparte  had  made  preparations  for  marching  against 
Austria,  he  resolved  to  reinforce  his  army  in  Italy  by  the  troops 
vvhich  occupied  a  part  of  the  kingdom  of  Naples.  To  ingrati- 
ate himself  withkFerdinand  IV.,  he  concluded  a  treaty  with  that 
prince  'Sept.  21,)  by  which  the  latter,  on  obtaining  the  evacua- 
tion 01  his  own  states,  promised  to  remain  neutral.  He  did  not 
depend,  however,  on  that  monarch's  fulfilling  his  promise.  It 
was  a  part  of  the  plan  of  the  allies,  that  the  Russian  and  Eng- 
lish armies  should  land  in  the  kingdom  of  Naples  ;  the  one  by 
the  way  of  Corfu,  and  the  other  from  Malta.  The  plan  was 
carried  into  execution,  and  the  foreign  troops  were  received  as 
friends.  A  decree  of  Napoleon,  dated  from  Schoenbrun  (Dec. 
27,)  had  declared  that  the  dynasty  of  the  Bourbons  had  ceased 


214.  CHAPTER  XI. 

to  reign  at  Naples.  After  the  battle  of  Austerlitz,  the  Russians 
and  English  abandoned  Italy  ;  and  Ferdinand  IV.  found  him- 
self without  defence,  exposed  to  a  French  army,  who  were  ap- 
proaching his  capital.  He  embarked  for  Sicily,  when  the  French 
entered  Naples  (Jan.  1806,)  and  Joseph  Bonaparte,  the  brother 
of  Napoleon,  was  created  King  of  the  Two  Sicilies  (March  30,) 
although  his  sway  never  extended  farther  than  the  kingdom  of 
Naples. 

Those  are  probably  in  a  mistake,  who  imagine  they  find  in 
the  conduct  of  Bonaparte,  the  gradual  development  of  a  great 
plan,  conceived  before-hand ;  and  springing  from  his  head,  so 
to  speak,  like  the  fabled  Minerva  from  the  brain  of  Jupiter. 
The  circumstances  in  which  he  was  placed,  the  success  of  his 
arms,  and  the  weakness  of  foreign  Cabinets,  suggested  to  him 
one  idea  after  another.  It  was  when  he  was  on  his  march 
against  the  Russians,  that  he  received  the  news  of  the  battle  of 
Trafalgar,  which  had  completely  destroyed  the  labour  of  three 
years,  and  annihilated  his  hopes  of  reducing  England  by  plant- 
ing his  standard  on  her  soil.  His  imagination  then  conceived 
the  plan  of  opposing  one  combination  of  strength  to  another, 
and  surrounding  France  with  a  number  of  states,  independent 
in  appearance,  but  subject  to  the  direction  of  the  head  of  the 
Empire. 

After  the  peace  of  Presburg,  he  had  repaired  to  Munich, 
where  he  adopted  his  stepson,  Eugeue  Beauharnais,  and  de- 
clared him  his  successor  in  the  kingdom  of  Italy.  In  announ- 
cing this  elevation  to  the  Senate,  (Jan.  12,  1806,)  he  declared 
that  he  reserved  to  himself  the  right  of  determining  the  common 
tie  which  was  to  unite  all  the  States  composing  the  Federative 
System  of  the  Freiich  Empire.  This  was  the  first  time  that 
this  system  was  spoken  of.  In  a  short  time  after,  he  declared, 
that  the  whole  peninsula  of  Italy  made  part  of  the  Grand  Em- 
pire. Finally,  a  constitutional  statute  of  the  Imperial  family, 
which  he  published  at  that  time  (March  30,)  may  be  regarded 
as  the  fundamental  law  of  the  Federative  System  he  had  lately 
announced.  That  statute  granted  to  the  Emperor  of  the  French 
an  absolute  supremacy  over  all  the  sovereigns  of  his  family  ;  and 
he  no  doubt  had  great  hopes,  that  the  time  would  arrive  when 
no  others  would  be  found  in  any  of  the  adjacent  states. 

In  annexing  the  Venetian  provinces  to  the  kingdom  of  Italy, 
Bonaparte  detached  from  them  Massa-Carrara  and  Carfagnana, 
which  he  bestowed  on  the  Prince  of  Lucca.  At  the  same  time, 
he  created  within  these  provinces  twelve  dutchies,  as  hereditary 
fiefs  of  the  Empire,  and  three  within  the  states  of  Parma ;  all 
of  which  he  disposed  of  in  favour  of  his  generals  and  ministers. 


PERIOD  IX.     A.  D.  1789— 18L5.  215 

The  dutchy  of  Cleves,  ceded  by  Prussia,  as  well  as  that  of 
Berg  which  had  been  ceded  to  him  by  the  King-  of  Bavaria, 
were  conferred,  together  with  the  hereditary  dignity  of  Admiral 
of  France,  on  his  brother-in-law  Joachim  Murat  (March  30.) 
Alexander  Berthier  was  created  Prince  of  Neufchatel  (June  5.) 
At  a  later  period,  he  granted  the  dutchy  of  Benevento  to  M. 
Talleyrand  Perigord,  under  the  title  of  Sovereign  Principality  ; 
and  the  principality  of  Pontecorvo  to  Jean  Baptiste  Bernadotte, 
the  brother-in-law  of  Joseph  Bonaparte.  He  took  these  two  ter- 
ritories from  the  States  of  the  Church,  under  the  pretext  that 
their  sovereignty  was  an  object  of  litigation  between  the  Courts 
of  Rome  and  Naples  ;  an  allegation  which  was  not  true. 

The  continuation  of  the  History  of  Bonaparte  presents  us 
with  a  series  of  new  usurpations  and  aggressions.  Towards 
the  end  of  January,  the  French  troops  entered  into  the  free  city 
of  Frankfort,  where  they  levied  four  millions,  to  punish  the  in- 
habitants for  their  connexion  with  the  English.  Bonaparte  Avas 
living  at  that  time  in  the  most  perfect  peace  with  the  German 
Empire  to  which  that  city  belonged,  and  which  could  not  protect 
it.  By  the  treaty  of  Presburg,  the  Bocca  di  Cattaro,  in  Dalma- 
tia,  was  to  be  restored  to  the  French ;  but  the  Russians,  whose 
fleet  was  cruising  off  these  coasts,  immediately  took  possession 
of  that  place  (Feb.  4,)  at  the  moment  when  the  Austrians  were 
about  to  surrender  it  to  the  French.  Bonaparte  made  this  a 
pretext  for  refusing  to  give  up  to  the  Court  of  Vienna  the  for- 
tress of  Braunau,  which  he  was  to  evacuate  according  to  the 
stipulations  of  that  same  treaty,  and  for  leaving  a  part  of  his 
army  in  Germany.  He  did  more  ;  he  ordered  General  Lauris- 
ton,  who  commanded  the  French  army  in  Dalmatia,  to  occupy 
Ragusa  (May  27,)  a  Republic  placed  under  the  protection  of  the 
Porte,  with  whom  there  subsisted  a  treaty  of  peace.  It  was  not, 
however,  until  the  13th  August  1807,  that  Ragusa  was  formally 
united  to  the  kingdom  of  Italy. 

The  Elector  of  Baden  and  the  Princes  of  Nassau  were  oblig- 
ed to  make  cessions  to  France.  The  former  surrendered  Kehl, 
ind  the  latter  Cassel  and  Kostheim,  opposite  Mayence.  Wesel, 
a  fortress  in  the  dutchy  of  Cleves  was  likewise  occupied  by  the 
French  troops.  All  these  were  so  many  violations  of  the  peace 
of  Luneville,  and  ihe  treaty  of  Vienna  in  1805. 

In  order  to  promote  this  federative  system,  the  States-General 
of  the  Batavian  Republic  received  a  hint  to  petition  Bonaparte 
for  a  King.  A  treaty  was  in  consequence  concluded  at  Paris 
(March  24,)  by  which  Louis,  the  brother  of  Napoleon,  was  cre- 
ated Hereditary  and  Constitutional  King  of  Holland ;  the  title 
to  descend  to  his  male  issue.     That  young  man  accepted  with 


2l6  CHAPTER   XI. 

reluctance  a  crown  which  he  had  never  coveted,  and  which  ho 
v/ore  with  much  dignity. 

William  Pitt,  whom  history  would  have  been  proud  to  call  the 
Great  Pitt,  had  she  not  already  given  that  title  to  his  father,  had 
died  about  the  beginning  of  the  year  (Jan.  23.)  Charles  Fox, 
his  former  antagonist,  succeeded  him  in  the  ministry.  He  im- 
mediately entered  into  negotiations  for  peace  between  France 
and  England.  This  commission,  on  the  part  of  the  latter,  was 
intrusted  first  to  Lord  Yarmouth  and  afterwards  to  Lord  Lau- 
derdale. After  the  death  of  Fox  (Sept.  13,)  the  negotiations 
ended  without  having  produced  any  change  in  the  relations  be- 
tween France  and  England ;  nevertheless  they  deserve  to  be 
placed  among  the  important  events  of  that  year,  as  they  were 
the  immediate  cause  of  the  war  with  Prussia,  as  we  shall  have 
occasion  to  mention. 

The  Emperor  Alexander  likewise  made  an  attempt  for  a  re- 
conciliation with  Bonaparte.  He  sent  M.  D'Oubril  to  Paris, 
who,  after  a  negotiation  of  ten  days,  concluded  a  treaty  with 
General  Clarke,  the  French  plenipotentiary,  (July  20,  1806,)  by 
which  it  was  agreed  that  the  Russian  troops  should  evacuate 
the  Bocca  di  Cattaro,  and  the  French  troops  quit  Ragusa ;  that 
the  independence  of  the  Republic  of  the  Seven  Islands  should  be 
acknowledged,  as  well  as  the  independence  and  integrity  of  the 
Porte  ;  that  in  three  months  the  French  troops  should  evacuate 
Germany;  that  the  two  parties  should  use  their  joint  influence 
to  procure  a  cessation  of  the  war  between  Prussia  and  Sweden  ; 
that  Bonaparte  should  accept  the  mediation  of  Russia,  in  nego- 
tiating a  maritime  peace.  A  secret  article  secured  to  Ferdi- 
nand IV.  the  Balearic  Isles,  in  compensation  for  the  kingdom  of 
Naples.  It  thus  appeared  that  the  King  of  Sardinia  was  the 
greatest  sufferer.  The  Emperor  Alexander  refused  to  ratify 
this  treaty,  whether  it  was  that  he  considered  the  terms  not  alto- 
gether honourable,  or  that  he  was  displeased  with  the  conclu- 
sion of  the  Confederation  of  the  Rhine,  which  took  place  at  this 
time. 

The  Confederation  of  the  Rhine  was  undoubtedly  the  most 
important  consequence  of  the  peace  of  Presburg.  That  event 
which  entirely  changed  the  state  of  Germany,  and  placed  so 
large  a  portion  of  that  Empire  under  obedience  to  Bonaparte, 
was  prepared  by  the  article  of  the  peace  which  recognised  the 
sovereignty  of  the  Kings  of  Bavaria  and  Wurtemberg,  and  the 
Elector  of  Baden  ;  as  well  as  by  several  other  irregular  transac- 
tions which  took  place  after  that  time.  Such  was  the  conduct 
of  the  Elector  Arch-Chancellor,  in  arrogating  to  himself  the 
right  of  appointing  his  own  successor  ;  and  nominating  Cardinal 


PERIOD  IX.      A.  D.  1802—1810.  217 

Fesch  as  such;  who  was  Bonaparte's  nncle.  The  Confedera- 
tion of  the  Rhine  was  concluded  at  Paris  (July  12,  1S06,)  be- 
tween Bonaparte  and  sixteen  of  the  German  princes,  including 
the  Duke  of  Cleves,  who  separated  from  the  Germanic  Em- 
pire, and  formed  a  particular  union  among  themselves,  under 
the  protection  of  Bonaparte. 

The  declarations  which  the  minister  of  France  and  those  of 
the  Confederated  Estates,  remitted  on  the  same  day  to  the  Diet 
of  Ratisbon,  intimated  to  that  assembly,  that  the  German  Em- 
pire had  ceased  to  exist.  The  Chief  of  the  Germanic  body,  who 
had  been  kept  ignorant  of  all  these  measures,  then  published  a 
spirited  declaration  (Aug.  6,)  by  which  he  resigned  a  crown 
which  could  only  appear  valuable  in  his  eyes  so  long  as  he  was 
able  to  fulfil  the  duties,  and  exercise  the  prerogatives  which 
were  attached  to  it. 

This  transaction,  v*^hich  put  an  end  to  the  German  Empire, 
had  been  kept  a  secret  from  Prussia.  Bonaparte,  in  announcing 
to  Frederic  William  the  result  which  it  had  produced,  invited 
him  to  form  a  similar  confederation  in  the  North  of  Germany  ; 
but  at  the  same  time,  he  negotiated  privately  with  the  Electors 
of  Hesse  and  Saxony,  to  prevent  them  from  entering  into  that 
union  ;  and  declared,  that  he  could  never  permit  the  cities  of 
Bremen,  Hamburg,  and  Lubec,  to  become  parties  to  it.  In  his 
negotiations  with  England,  he  proposed  to  make  over  these  ci- 
ties to  Ferdinand  IV.  King  of  the  Two  Sicilies.  He  carried 
nis  stratagems  even  farther.  He  several  times  offered  to  the 
English  plenipotentiaries- the  same  Electorate  of  Hanover  which, 
a  few  months  before,  he  had  almost  compelled  Prussia  to  claim 
as  her  own  ;  and  he  offered  to  the  Elector  of  Hesse  the  princi- 
pality of  Fulda,  which  had  been  granted  to  the  House  of  Orange, 
then  in  strict  alliance  with  that  of  Brandeburg.  All  these  un- 
derhand manoeuvres  opened  the  eyes  of  the  Cabinet  of  Berlin, 
which  immediately  resolved  to  declare  war.  Unfortunately  for 
Prussia,  she  commenced  hostilities  without  waiting  the  arrival 
of  the  supplies  which  Russia  owed  her,  in  virtue  of  the  alliance 
between  the  two  States  by  the  treaty  of  Peterhoff  (July  28, 
1800;)  and  she  had  to  take  the  field  against  an  active  enemy, 
whose  warlike  troops  were  already  in  the  heart  of  Germany. 

General  Knobelsdorff,  whom  the  King  of  Prussia  had  sent  to 
Paris,  o-ave  in  the  demands  which  were  to  be  considered  as  his 
ultimatum  : — Bonaparte  treated  his  propositions  as  extravagant 
and  insulting,  and  accordingly  commenced  hostilities.  The 
campaign  was  decided  by  the  battle  of  Jena,  or  rather  by  two 
battles  which  were  fought  on  the  same  day  (Oct.  14,  1806.) 
Bonaparte  in  person  gained  the  one  near  Jena  over  Prince  Ho- 

voL.  n.  '•' 


218  CHAPTER   XI. 

henlohe ;  Marshal  Davoust  gained  the  other  near  Auerstadt 
over  the  Dake  of  Brunswick,  Commander-in-chief  of  the  Prus- 
sian army.  The  rout  was  complete.  For  a  short  time  the 
troops  retired  without  confusion.  The  approach  of  the  enemy's 
cavahy,  however,  extinguished  all  remains  of  order,  and  the 
most  precipitate  dispersion  of  the  vanquished  army  ensued. 
About  20,000  were  killed  and  wounded  in  the  battle  and  pur- 
suit ;  and  the  prisoners  formed  at  least  an  equal  number.  The 
scattered  remains  of  the  troops  who  united  after  the  action,  were 
either  defeated  or  obliged  to  surrender  as  prisoners  of  war.  The 
King,  with  the  wreck  of  his  army,  marched  back  to  Prussia. 
Berlin,  his  capital,  fell  into  the  hands  of  the  conqueror.  The 
carelessness,  the  unskilfulness,  or  the  treachery  of  their  com- 
anders,  and  the  want  of  means  of  defence,  were  the  causes 
A^hy  several  fortresses,  and  whole  battalions  of  troops,  surren- 
dered after  a  slight  resistance.  There  were  some  who  were 
even  obliged  to  capitulate  in  spite  of  their  bravery.  At  Erfurt, 
Field-Marsh-'^.l  Mellendorff  capitulated  with  14,000  men  (Oct. 
16.)  Spandau  fell  on  the  same  day  that  the  enemy  entered  into 
Berlin  (Oct.  25.)  Prince  Hohenlohe,  after  a  brav^e  defence,  ca- 
pitulated at  Prentzlau  (Oct.  29,)  with  a  corps  originally  consist- 
ing of  16,000  infantry,  and  sixteen  regiments  of  cavalry.  Stettin 
and  Custrin  opened  their  gates  after  a  slight  resistance  (Nov.  1.) 
At  Lubec,  21,000  men,  with  General  Blucher,  laid  down  their 
arms  (Nov.  7.)  Magdeburg  capitulated  next  day  with  22,000 
men. 

Immediately  after  the  battle  of  Jena,  Bonaparte  took  posses- 
sion of  the  principality  of  Fulda.  He  also  sent  a  message  to  the 
old  Duke  of  Brunswick,  that  none  of  his  family  should  ever  reign 
after  him.  That  prince  died  of  the  wounds  he  had  received  at 
Auerstadt ;  and  his  lifeless  body  was  not  permitted  to  be  deposi- 
ted among  the  ashes  of  his  ancestors.  The  Elector  of  Hesse, 
who  had  remained  neutral,  Avas  declared  an  enemy  to  France, 
and  his  territories  seized.  Bonaparte,  in  return,  granted  neu- 
trality to  the  Elector  of  Saxony,  whose  troops  had  fought  against 
him  at  Jena. 

The  King  of  Prussia  had  tried  to  allay  the  storm  which  threat- 
ened his  monarchy.  The  Marqui<s  de  Lucchesini  and  General 
Zastrow  entered  into  a  negotiation  with  Marshal  Duroc  at  Char- 
lottenburg  (Oct.  30.)  Bonaparte  refused  to  ratify  the  prelimi- 
naries Avhich  were  signed  there,  because  the  idea  had  occurred 
to  him  in'  the  meantime  of  exciting  the  Poles  to  insurrection. 
An  armistice  was  then  signed  (Nov.  16,)  on  conditions  extremely 
rigorous,  by  which  Breslau,  Glogau,  Colberg,  Graudentz  and 
Dantzic,  were  delivered  up  to  the  French.     Frederic,  who  had 


rii iLioD  IX.     A.  1).  1SU2— ISIO.  219 

resolved  to  throw  himself  on  Russia,  whose  forces  were  ap})roach~ 
ing  in  all  haste,  rejected  that  armistice.  From  Berlin  Bona- 
parte repaired  to  Posnania,  where  he  concluded  a  treaty  with 
the  Elector  of  Saxony  (Dec.  11.)  That  prince  then  assumed 
the  title  of  King-,  joined  the  Confederation  of  the  Rhine,  and  got 
possession  of  the  Circle  of  Cotbus,  belonging  to  Prussia.  By  a 
treaty  signed  at  the  same  place  (Dec.  15,)  the  Dukes  of  Sax- 
ony, of  the  race  of  Ernest,  were  likewise  received  into  the  Con- 
federation of  the  Rhine. 

A  Russian  army  of  90,000  men  had  arrived  in  Prussia  in  the 
month  of  November.  Frederic  William,  on  his  side,  formed  a 
new  army  of  40,000  men.  Several  actions  took  place  without 
any  decisive  result;  but  after  the  battle  of  Pultusk  (Dec.  26,) 
where  the  victory  was  claimed  both  by  the  French  and  Rus- 
sians, each  party  retired  to  winter  quarters. 

During  Bonaparte's  stay  at  Berlin,  he  conceived  the  idea  of 
the  Continental  System ;  or  at  least  reduced  its  elements  into 
shape.  The  purport  of  this  system  was  to  ruin  the  commerce, 
and  by  consequence,  the  prosperity  of  England,  by  excluding 
from  the  Continent  of  Europe  the  importation  not  only  of  her 
own  manufactures,  but  the  productions  of  her  colonies  ;  the  use 
of  which  had  become,  through  long  habit,  one  of  the  necessaries 
of  life  to  all  the  nations  of  Europe  ;  and  for  which,  moreover, 
no  substitute  could  be  found  in  home  manufactures.  This  chi- 
merical scheme,  and  the  Federative  System,  which  we  have 
already  mentioned,  were  the  two  scourges  which  Bonaparte  in- 
flicted on  the  Continent  of  Europe.  The  abuse,  it  was  alleged, 
which  the  English  made  of  their  superiority  by  sea,  had  provo- 
ked Bonaparte  to  this  measure.  The  right  of  blockade,  that  is, 
the  right  of  a  belligerent  power  to  station  a  force  before  a  hostile 
port  sufficient  to  prevent  any  neutral  vessel  from  entering,  is 
founded  in  principle.  But  England  pretended,  that  if  a  port 
were  declared  to  be  under  blockade,  it  must  be  considered  as 
actually  blockaded  ;  and  accordingly,  she  had  declared  all  the 
ports  between  Brest  and  the  Elbe  under  blockade  (May  16.) 
An  order  issued  by  Bonaparte,  known  by  the  name  of  the  De- 
cree of  Berlin,  declared  the  whole  British  Islands  in  a  state  of 
blockade,  by  way  of  reprisals  (Nov.  21.)  He  commanded  all 
British  subjects  to  be  arrested,  who  might  be  found  in  the  coun- 
tries occupied  by  his  troops,  or  those  of  his  allies.  He  ordered 
their  property,  and  every  article  of  British  or  colonial  produce 
on  the  Continent  to  be  confiscated  ;  and  excluded  from  his  ports 
all  vessels  which  should  come  directly  from  Britain,  or  any  of 
its  dependencies.  The  development  of  this  system  we  shall 
notice  afterwards. 


220  CHAPTER  XI. 

The  repose  of  the  armies  did  not  continue  longer  than  a  month. 
General  Bennigsen,  who  had  the  chief  command  of  the  Russians 
and  Prussians,  undertook  to  relieve  the  cities  of  Graudentz 
Dantzic,  and  Colberg.  After  a  number  of  petty  engagements, 
which  claim  no  particular  notice,  thp  campaign  was  terminated 
by  the  battle  of  Eylau  in  Prussia  (i  eb.  8,  1807.)  Bonaparte, 
or  rather  Davoust,  was  successful  against  the  left  wing  and  the 
centre  of  the  allies ;  but  Lestocq,  the  Prussian  General,  having 
.arrived  on  the  field  of  battle,  near  the  right  wing  of  the  Prus- 
sians which  had  never  been  engaged,  marched  instantly  to  sup- 
port the  left  wing  which  was  giving  way,  and  snatched  the  vic- 
tory from  the  hands  of  Davoust.  Bennigsen,  who  was  in  want 
of  ammunition,  retired  towards  Koningsberg,  leaving  Bonaparte 
on  the  field  of  battle,  which  was  covered  with  30,000  of  the 
French  slain,  and  12,000  wounded.  The  Russians  had  lost 
17,000  men.  After  this  carnage,  Bonaparte  announced  that  he 
had  defeated  the  Russians,  and  retired  behind  the  Passarge. 
Hostilities  were  then  suspended  for  some  months. 

In  the  month  of  February,  negotiations  for  peace  were  re- 
newed. Bonaparte,  who  w^as  at  Osterode,  sent  General  Bertrand 
to  the  King  of  Prussia  at  Memel,  to  try  to  detach  him  from 
Russia.  When  the  King  had  declined  this  proposal,  some  de- 
liberation took  place  as  to  the  terms  of  an  armistice  ;  but  the 
Emperor  Alexander,  who  had  also  arrived  at  Memel,  saw  that 
this  was  only  a  manoeuvre  of  Bonaparte,  who  merely  wished 
to  gain  time  to  repair  his  losses.  The  negotiations,  accordingly, 
were  broken  ofT.  Baron  Hardenberg,  who  had  been  placed  by 
the  King  of  Prussia  at  the  helm  of  foreign  affairs,  then  resumed 
the  project  of  Mr.  Pitt,  which  had  failed  in  1805,  because  Count 
Haugwitz,  the  former  minister,  had  dissuaded  Frederic  William 
from  entering  into  the  alliance.  The  basis  of  a  new  coalition 
was  laid  by  the  convention  of  Bartenstein,  between  Russia  and 
Prussia  (April  21,)  in  which  Austria,  Great  Britain,  Sweden 
and  Denmark,  were  invited  to  join.  The  same  day  a  conven- 
tion with  the  King  of  Sweden  was  likewise  signed  at  Barten- 
stein, in  consequence  of  which  Prussia  promised  to  send  a  body 
of  troops  into  Pomerania.  Austria  was  disposed  to  enter  into 
this  project,  but  before  coming  to  a  decision,  she  tried  the 
scheme  of  mediation  ;  and  in  the  month  of  March,  new  pro- 
posals for  peace  were  made,  which  proved  unsuccessful.  Sup- 
plies were  promised  to  Prussia  by  a  convention  signed  at  Lon- 
don (June  27,)  but  which  a  change  of  circumstances  prevented 
from  being  ratified. 

While  the  armies  continued  in  a  kin-d  of  inaction,  Marshal 
Lefebvre  pressed  the  siege  of  Dantzic.     After  several  attempts 


i 


PERIOD  IX.     A.  D.  1802— 18ia.  221 

lo  blockade  the  place,  General  Kalkreuth  obtained  a  capitulation 
on  very  honourable  terms  (May  24.)  Neisse,  Kozel  and  Glatz, 
likewise  capitulated  in  course  of  the  following  month.  These  two 
latter  places  were  not  to  be  restored  by  the  French.  Hostilities 
recommenced  in  the  month  of  June.  Skirmishes  were  daily 
taking  place,  until  the  battle  of  Friedland  decided  the  campaign 
(June  14.)  General  Bennigsen  defeated  the  divisions  of  Lan- 
nes  and  Mortier,  w^hen  the  Russians,  thinking  the  battle  was 
gained  as  they  no  longer  saw  the  enemy,  slackened  their  exer- 
tions ;  but  towards  the  evening  Bonaparte  arrived  on  the  field 
of  battle  with  guides,  and  the  corps  of  Marshals  Ney  and  Vic- 
tor ;  and  taking  advantage  of  the  confusion  which  appeared  in 
the  Russian  army,  he  put  them  completely  to  the  rout.  In 
consequence  of  this  defeat,  Koningsberg  opened  her  gates  to  the 
conqueror.  The  Russian  and  Prussian  armies  passed  the  Nie 
men  (June  18  ;)  and  next  day  Bonaparte  entered  Tilsit. 

Meantime  the  Cabinet  of  Vienna,  with  whom  negotiations 
were  still  carrying  on  to  obtain  their  accession  to  the  convention 
of  Bartenstein,  had  sent  General  Stutterheim  to  the  head-quar- 
ters of  the  two  monarchs,  with  powder  to  sign  a  defensive  al- 
liance ;  but  the  war  had  then  recommenced  with  new  vigour. 
There  was  a  party  in  both  Cabinets,  and  even  among  the  allied 
Generals,  who  wished  to  prevent  this  alliance  ;  and  this  party 
succeeded  in  their  designs.  A  Russian  General  appeared  at 
Tilsit  on  the  part  of  Bennigsen  to  negotiate  an  armistice,  which 
was  concluded  on  the  spot  (June  21,)  without  including  the 
Prussian  army.  Four  days  after,  an  interview  took  place  be- 
tween Alexander  and  Napoleon,  on  the  invitation  of  the  latter, 
who  wished  to  exert  all  his  address  to  seduce  the  Northern  Au 
tocrat  from  the  alliance  into  W'hich  he  had  entered.  This  me- 
morable interview  took  place  on  a  raft  in  the  middle  of  the  river 
Niemen.  Each  prince,  accompanied  by  five  generals  and  cour- 
tiers, reached  the  raft  from  the  opposite  bank  at  the  same  mo- 
ment, and  embraced  each  other  with  all  the  appearance  of  per- 
fect cordiality.  They  conversed  for  two  hours  in  a  pavilion, 
and  the  ambitious  ruler  of  France  displayed  in  such  glowing 
colours  the  joys  of  arbitrary  power  and  unlimited  dominion,  and 
held  out  such  an  attractive  prospect  of  the  advantages  which  he 
might  derive  from  a  union  of  councils  and  co-operation,  that 
Alexander  listened  with  pleasure  to  his  new  adviser,  and  was 
ready  to  rush  into  anew  alliance.  On  the  same  day.  Field 
Marshal  Kalkreuth  signed  an  armistice  on  the  part  of  Prussia. 
The  next  day  he  had  a  second  interview,  at  which  the  King 
of  Prussia  assisted,  who,  when  he  objected  to  some  parts  of  the 
proposed  treaty,  was  insulted  with  a  hint  of  his  not  being  enti- 

VOL.  II.  19=^ 


222  CHAPTER  XI. 

tied  10  tht  honour  of  consultation,  as  he  had  been  so  completely 
conquered.  It  was  on  this  occasion  that  Bonaparte  demanded 
that  the  Emperor  Alexander  should  dismiss  his  minister  Baron 
Budberg,  and  the  king- of  Prussia  Baron  Hardenberg.  The  Prince 
Kourakin,  and  Count  de  Goltz  were  substituted  in  their  place. 

The  treaty  with  Russia  was  first  signed  (July  7.)  The  Em- 
peror Alexander  obtained  from  Bonaparte  the  spoliation  of  his 
former  ally,  or  according  to  the  form  which  was  given  to  it  in 
that  transaction,  That  the  King  of  Prussia  should  recover  one 
half  of  his  estates.  The  provinces  which  Prussia  had  obtained 
by  the  second  and  third  division  of  Poland  were  ceded  to  the 
King  of  Saxony,  under  the  title  of  the  Dutchy  of  Warsaw, 
with  the  exception  of  the  fortress  of  Graudentz,  which  remained 
in  the  possession  of  Prussia,  and  the  city  of  Dantzic,  which  was 
to  regain  its  independence,  with  the  exception  of  the  department 
of  Bialystock  which  was  annexed  to  the  Russian  Empire.  Alex- 
ander acknowledged  the  Kings  created  by  Bonaparte,  including 
the  King  of  Westphalia.  He  likewise  acknowledged  the  Con- 
federation of  the  Rhine,  and  ceded  to  Bonaparte  the  Seignory  of 
Jever,  which  he  inherited  from  his  mother.  He  promised  to 
withdraw  his  troops  from  Moldavia  and  Wallachia ;  and  to  make 
common  cause  with  Bonaparte  against  England,  should  the  lat- 
ter refuse  to  make  peace  by  submitting  to  the  principles  of  frte 
commerce  by  sea.  It  appears,  moreover,  by  certain  secret  arti- 
cles, that  Alexander  promised  to  surrender  to  Bonaparte  the 
Bocca  di  Cattaro,  and  the  isles  of  the  Ionian  Republic  ;  which 
took  place  in  the  month  of  August  following.  The  peace  which 
was  signed  between  Russia  and  Bonaparte  two  days  after  (July 
9,)  included  nearly  the  same  stipulations. 

A  special  convention  was  required  for  executing  the  articles 
of  the  treaty,  which  related  to  the  evacuation  of  the  States  of  the 
King  of  Prussia.  This  was  negotiated  and  signed  at  Konings- 
berg  (July  12,)  with  unpardonable  precipitancy,  by  Field-Marshal 
Kalkreuth,  who  forgot  to  insert  certain  stipulations  so  essential 
and  so  obvious,  that  it  must  have  appeared  to  him  superfluous 
to  mention  them.  Bonaparte  took  advantage  of  these  omissions 
to  ruin  the  provinces  which  were  left  in  possession  of  Prussia. 
It  may  be  justly  said,  that  the  convention  of  Koningsberg  did 
nearly  as  much  mischief  to  Prussia  as  the  peace  of  Tilsit  itself. 
It  occasioned  the  necessity  of  signing  a,  series  of  subsequent  con- 
ventions, by  each  of  which  Prussia  had  to  submit  to  some  new 
sacrifice.  Some  of  the  more  important  of  these  we  shall  after- 
wards have  occasion  to  mention. 

The  King  of  Sweden,  who  was  attacked  in  Pomerania  by 
Marshal  Mortier,  had  concluded  an  armistice  at    Schlatkorv' 


PEEioD  IX.     A.  D.  1802—1810.  223 

(April  18.)  Gustavus  Adolphus  IV.  projected  an  attack  on  Mar- 
shal Brune,  while  a  body  of  10,000  Prussians  were  to  make  a 
descent  for  blockading  Colberg.  To  carry  this  project  into  exe- 
cution, he  was  so  eager  to  declare  against  the  armistice,  that,  on 
the  signature  of  the  peace  of  Tilsit,  he  found  himself  alone  under 
arms,  and  exposing  his  troops  to  great  danger.  This  unseason- 
able zeal  obliged  him  to  evacuate  Stralsund  and  the  whole  of 
Pomerania  (Sept.  7.) 

In  erecting  the  Dutchy  of  Warsaw,  Bonaparte  had  given  it  a 
constitution  modelled  after  that  of  France,  without  paying  atten- 
tion to  the  difference  of  manners,  customs,  and  localities  of  the 
inhabitants.  The  King  of  Saxony  was  put  in  possession  of  that 
State  ;  but  the  new  dutchy  was  nothing  else  than  a  province  ©f 
the  French  Empire.  The  city  of  Dantzic  was  again  plunged 
into  a  state  of  the  most  abject  dependence  ;  and  until  the  yeai 
1814,  it  remained  under  the  orders  of  a  Governor-general  ap 
pointed  by  the  French.  The  throne  of  Westphalia  was  destined 
by  Bonaparte  for  his  younger  brother  Jerome.  That  monarchy 
was  composed  of  the  greater  part  of  those  provinces  ceded  by 
the  King  of  Prussia  ;  of  nearly  all  the  estates  of  the  Elector  ol 
Hesse  and  the  Duke  of  Brunswick ;  of  a  district  belonging  to  the 
Electorate  of  Hanover  ;  of  the  principality  of  Corvey,  and  the 
county  of  Rittberg — containing  in  all  about  two  millions  of  in- 
habitants. Only  a  small  part  of  this  kingdom  was  situated  in 
Westphalia ;  and  it  is  not  known  by  what  chance  the  name  of 
that  country  was  selected  for  the  new  monarchy.  Deputies  from 
that  kingdom  were  summoned  to  Paris,  where  they  received 
from  the  hands  of  Bonaparte  a  constitutional  charter  (Nov.  15,) 
in  the  construction  of  which  they  had  never  once  been  consulted. 
As  to  the  other  districts  which  Bonaparte  had  taken  possession 
of  in  Germany,  or  of  which  he  had  deprived  their  rightful  sove- 
reigns, viz.  the  Electorate  of  Hanover,  the  principalities  of  Erfurt, 
Fulda,  Baireuth,  and  Munster,  with  the  counties  of  Catzeneln- 
bogen  and  Hanau,  they  were  governed  entirely  to  his  own  inter- 
est, and  disposed  of  at  his  convenience. 

While  the  armies  of  Bonaparte  were  occupied  in  Prussia, 
Spain  formed  the  resolution  of  shaking  off  the  yoke  which  the 
Emperor  of  France  had  imposed  upon  her.  Charles  IV.  soli- 
cited privately  the  mediation  of  the  Emperor  Alexander,  to  bring 
about  a  peace  with  England.  By  a  proclamation  of  October 
30th  1806,  a  levy  of  40,000  men  was  ordered  for  the  defence  of 
the  country,  without  mentioning  against  what  enemy.  This 
imprudent  step,  which  they  had  not  courage  to  prosecute,  ruined 
Spain.  At  the  commencement  of  1807,  a  French  army  was  as- 
sembled in  the  vicinity  of  Bayonne.    A  trap  was  laid  for  Charles 


224  CHAPTER  XI. 

IV. ;  and  he  had  the  misfortune  to  fall  into  it.  According^  to  a 
convention  signed  at  Fountainbleau  (Oct.  27,)  between  his  pleni- 
potentiary and  that  of  Bonaparte,  for  the  partition  of  Portugal, 
that  kingdom  was  to  be  divided  into  three  lots.  The  most  north- 
erly part  was  destined  for  the  King  of  Etruria,  (who  was  to  sur- 
render up  Tuscany  to  Bonaparte,)  and  to  be  called  the  kingdom 
of  Northern  Lusitania.  The  southern  part,  comprising  Axgaives, 
was  to  form  a  principality  for  Don  Manuel  Godoy.  The  pro- 
vinces in  the  middle  part  were  to  be  disposed  of  at  the  general 
peace,  when  the  King  of  Spain  was  to  assume  the  title  of  Em- 
peror of  the  two  Americas. 

Immediately  after  the  signing  of  this  treaty,  Bonaparte  an- 
nounced to  the  Queen-Dowager  of  Etruria,  who  was  Regent  for 
her  son  Louis  II.,  that  the  kingdom  no  longer  belonged  to  him; 
and  that  a  new  destiny  awaited  him  in  Spain.  In  course  of  a 
few  days,  the  French  troops  occupied  Tuscany.  Maria  Louisa 
resigned  the  government,  and  retired  to  Madrid.  All  this  took 
place  after  Bonaparte  had  obtained  orders  that  the  15,000  Span 
iards,  who  were  in  Etruria,  should  be  sent  to  the  islands  of 
Denmark. 

A  decree  of  the  French  Senate,  of  August  18th  1807,  though 
not  published  till  a  month  after,  suppressed  the  Tribunate,  and 
introduced  other  changes,  intended  to  extinguish  all  traces  of  the 
Republic.  By  a  treaty  signed  at  Fountainbleau,  Bonaparte  made 
over  to  his  brother  Louis,  the  principality  of  East  Friesland  and 
the  territory  of  Jever,  in  lieu  of  the  city  and  port  of  Flushing. 

In  terms  of  the  treaty  of  the  27th  October,  30,000  French 
troops,  under  the  command  of  Junot,  crossed  the  Pyrenees  in 
two  divisions  ;  and  took  possession  of  Pampeluna,  St.  Sebastians, 
Figueras,  and  Barcelona.  The  two  divisions  united  again  at 
Salamanca,  and  being  reinforced  by  13,000  Spaniards,  they 
marched  upon  Lisbon  ;  while  40,000  others  assembled  at  Bay- 
onne,  under  the  pretence  of  supporting  their  companions  if  it 
were  necessary.  The  Prince  Regent  of  Portugal  embarked  with 
all  his  treasures  (Nov.  29,). and  departed  for  Brazil.  The  whole 
of  Portugal  was  taken  possession  of;  and  General  Junot  pro- 
claimed that  the  Hou^e  of  Braganza  had  ceased  to  reign  in  Eu- 
rope ;  but  the  French  never  executed  their  scheme  of  partition. 

We  have  already  observed,  what  progress  the  Federative 
system  of  the  French  Empire  had  made  in  1807,  by  the  founda- 
tion of  the  kingdom  of  Westphalia  and  the  dutchy  of  Warsaw, 
and  by  the  occupation  of  Portugal ;  and  we  shall  next  advert  to 
the  measures  adopted  during  the  same  year  by  Bonaparte,  for 
consolidating  the  Continental  system,  and  by  Great  Britain  for 
counteracting  its  effects.    An  order  was  issued  by  the  British 


liRioD  IX.     A.  D.  1802—1810.  226 

Cabinet  (Jan.  7,)  declaring  that  no  neutral  vesse.  would  be  per- 
mitted to  trade  with  any  port  belonging  to  France  or  her  allies, 
or  occupied  by  their  troops,  or  under  their  dependence.  A  de- 
cree, published  at  Warsaw  (Jan.  25,)  ordered  the  confiscation 
of  all  English  merchandise  in  the  Hanseatic  towns,  which  had 
been  occupied  by  the  order  of  Bonaparte.  An  order  of  the  Brit- 
ish Cabinet  (March  11,)  again  prescribed  a  rigorous  blockade  of 
the  mouths  of  the  Elbe,  the  Weser,  and  the  Ems.  A  declara- 
tion was  made  by  Bonaparte  (Oct.  14,)  in  presence  of  the  foreign 
ambassadors  at  Fountainbleau,  purporting  that  he  would  permit 
no  connexion,  either  commercial  or  diplomatic,  between  the 
Continental  powers  and  England.  An  order  of  the  British 
Cabinet  (Nov.  11,)  declared,  that  all  the  ports  and  places  in 
France,  and  the  countries  in  alliance  with  them,  or  any  other 
country  at  war  with  England,  as  well  as  all  other  ports  and 
places  in  Europe  where  the  British  flag  was  excluded,  though 
not  actually  at  war  with  Great  Britain  ;  and  all  other  ports  and 
places  of  the  colonies  belonging  to  her  enemies,  should  hence 
forth  be  subjected  to  the  same  restrictions  as  if  they  were  really 
under  blockade  ;  and,  consequently,  that  the  vessels  destined 
for  these  ports  should  be  subjected  to  examination  by  the  British 
cruisers  ;  and  required  to  stop  at  a  British  station,  and  pay  a 
duty  proportioned  to  the  value  of  the  cargo.  Another  order  of 
the  British  Cabinet  (Nov.  25,)  modified  the  preceding  declara- 
tion in  favour  of  neutral  vessels,  which  should  come  to  discharge 
either  English  merchandise  or  Colonial  produce  in  the  British 
ports.  A  decree  of  the  17th  December,  called  the  decree  of 
Milan,  because  it  was  issued  at  that  place,  declared,  that  all 
ships  which  should  be  searched  by  a  British  vessel,  or  pay  any 
tax  whatever  at  the  requisition  of  the  English  Government, 
should  be  denationalized,  and  regarded  as  English  property  ;  and 
having  thus  forfeited  their  original  and  national  rights,  they 
might  be  lawfully  captured  wherever  found.  The  same  decree 
declared  the  British  Isles  to  be  in  a  state  of  blockade  both  by  sea 
arid  land. 

Having  thus  established  the  Continental  system,  Bonaparte 
used  every  endeavour  to  make  all  the  Continental  Powers  ac- 
cede to  it.  Prussia  and  Russia  adhered  to  it,  after  the  peace  of 
Tilsit.  Denmark  soon  entered  into  this  French  system..  Spain 
acceded  to  it  (Jan.  8,)  Austria  (Feb.  18,  1808,)  and  Sweden 
{Ja.if.  6,  1810  ;)  so  that,  for  some  years,  the  Continent  of  Eu- 
rope had  no  other  medium  of  communication  with  England  than 
by  way  of  Constantinople.  There  was  one  prince  in  Christen- 
dom, who  refused  his  accession  to  the  Continental  system,  and 
that  was  Pius  VII.     This  sovereign  Pontiff  declared,  that  an 


226  CHAPTER   3C1. 

alliance  which  prohibited  all  intercourse  with  a  nation  from 
whom  they  had  suffered  no  grievance,  was  contrary  to  religion. 
In  order  to  punish  his  Holiness  for  this  resistance,  General  Miol- 
lis  had  orders  to  occupy  Rome  (Feb.  2,  1808.)  This  was  the 
commencement  of  a  series  of  aggressions  and  attacks,  by  which 
Bonaparte  vainly  hoped  to  bend  that  great  personage.  To 
gratify  his  resentment,  he  stripped  the  States  of  the  Church,  by 
a  decree  issued  at  St.  Cloud  (April  2,)  of  the  provinces  of  Urbino, 
Ancona,  Macerata  and  Camerino,  which  were  annexed  to  the 
kingdom  of  Italy. 

In  order  to  add  lustre  to  his  crown,  and  to  attach  his  servants 
to  him  by  the  ties  of  interest,  Bonaparte  resolved,  not  to  re- 
store the  noblesse — though  there  was  no  reason  known  why  he 
should  not — but  to  create  titles  of  nobility  which  should  pas? 
]n  hereditary  succession  to  their  descendants.  These  title? 
were  those  of  Princes,  Dukes,  Counts,  Barons,  and  Chevalier.^ 
or  Knights.  They  were  constituted  by  an  Imperial  statute 
which  he  transmitted  to  the  Senate ;  for  the  decrees  of  the  Se 
nate  were  seldom  used,  except  in  declaring  the  union  of  territo 
lies,  or  ordering  levies  of  conscripts. 

The  spoliation  of  the  Church  appeared  but  a  trivial  violence 
compared  with  that  masterpiece  of  intrigue  and  cunning  bj 
which  the  House  of  Bourbon  was  deprived  of  the  throne  ot 
Spain.  The  second  French  army  formed  at  Bayonne,  passed 
ihe  Pyrenees  about  the  beginning  of  the  year,  under  the  com 
mand  of  Joachim  Murat,  and  advanced  slowly  as  if  it  only 
waited  an  order  to  seize  the  capital.  A  popular  insurrection 
broke  out  at  Madrid,  directed  against  Godoy,  the  Prince  oJ 
Peace  ;  and  Charles  IV.,  who,  from  the  commencement  of  hi? 
reign,  had  been  disgusted  with  state  affairs,  abdicated  the  crown 
in  favour  of  his  son,  the  Prince  of  Asturias  (March  19,  1808,) 
who  assumed  the  title  of  Ferdinand  VII.  The  intrigues  of  the 
Queen-mother,  who  was  unwilling  to  quit  the  throne,  and  the 
plots  concerted  by  Murat,  soon  embroiled  the  Royal  family  in 
disputes.  The  French  troops  entered  Madrid  (Mar.  23.)  Ta- 
king advantage  of  the  inexperience  of  the  young  monarch,  they 
inveigled  him  into  an  interview  with  Bonaparte  at  Bayonne, 
where  Charles  IV.  and  his  Queen,  allured  by  promises  of  fa- 
vour and  friendship,  likewise  presented  themselves.  This  weak 
prince  there  retracted  his  abdication,  and  ceded  his  dominions 
over  to  Bonaparte  by  a  formal  treaty  (May  5.)  By  threatening 
Ferdinand  VII.  with  death,  they  extorted  from  him  a  similar  de- 
claration (May  10.)  Charles  IV.  his  Queen,  and  the  Prince  of 
Peace  were  conveyed  to  Compeigne,  and  afterwards  to  Mar- 
seilles. 


PERIOD  IX.     A.  D.  1802-  1810.  227 

Ferdinand  VII.  and  his  brothers  were  imprisoned  in  the  cas- 
tle of  Valencay.  Bonaparte  conferred  the  throne  of  Spain  on 
his  brother  Joseph  (June  6,)  who  was  then  King  of  Naples.  A 
Spanish  Junta,  assembled  at  Bayonne,  received  a  constitution 
i'rom  the  hands  of  Napoleon.  On  obtaifting  the  crown  of  Spain, 
Joseph  made  over  the  kingdom  of  Naples  to  his  brother,  who  in 
his  turn  resigned  it  to  Murat,  by  a  treaty  concluded  at  Bayonne. 
Murat  then  gave  up  the  dutchies  of  Cleves  and  Berg. 

Bonaparte  found  himself  deceived  as  to  the  character  of  the 
Spanish  nation,  when  he  supposed  they  would  tolerate  this  out- 
rage with  impunity.  A  tumult  of  the  inhabitants  of  Madrid 
was  quelled  by  Murat,  who  ordered  his  troops  to  fire  upon  the 
crowd  (May  2,)  when  upwards  of  1000  people  lost  their  lives. 
Towards  the  end  of  the  same  month,  a  general  insurrection 
broke  out  in  all  those  parts  of  Spain  not  occupied  by  the  enemy. 
This  was  a  great  annoyance  to  Bonaparte  during  the  rest  of  his 
reign,  and  prevented  him  from  subduing  that  peninsula.  It 
served  as  an  example  and  encouragement  to  other  nations  to 
shake  off  his  yoke.  The  Portuguese  rose,  in  imitation  of  their 
neighbours.  The  English  sent  supplies  to  both  nations  ;  and 
it  was  beyond  the  Pyrenees  that  Bonaparte  experienced  those 
first  disasters  which  were  the  harbingers  of  his  downfall. 

One  event,  more  remarkable  for  the  pomp  with  which  it  was 
accompanied,  than  for  the  consequences  which  it  produced, 
was  the  interview  which  took  place  at  Erfurt  (Sept.  27,)  be- 
tween the  Emperor  Alexander  and  Bonaparte.  What  negotia- 
tions might  have  been  agitated  there,  are  not  known  with  cer- 
tainty ;  but  publicity  has  been  given  to  the  measures  concerted 
in  common  between  Bonaparte  and  Alexander  for  making  over- 
tures of  peace  to  England,  although  they  must  have  foreseen 
that  the  attempt  would  prove  fruitless.  From  that  time  an  in- 
timate friendship  subsisted  for  two  years  between  the  Courts  of 
Russia  and  France. 

The  inconsiderate  haste  with  which  Field-Marshal  Kalkreuth 
had  concluded  the  convention  of  Koningsberg,  and  the  defects 
or  omissions  of  that  act,  furnished  the  agents  of  Bonaparte  with 
numerous  pretexts  for  oppressing  the  Prussian  States  by  per- 
petual aggressions  ;  and  for  continuing  not  only  to  occupy  the 
country,  but  to  impose  taxes  for  the  service  of  France,  without 
deducting  their  amount  from  the  usual  contribution  which  that 
kingdom  had  to  pay.  To  extricate  themselves  from  so  harassing 
a  situation.  Prince  William,  the  King's  brother,  who  had  been 
sent  to  Paris  to  negotiate  for  the  evacuation  of  Prussia,  signed 
a  convention  there  (Sept.  8,)  by  which  the  King  engaged  to 
pay,  at  stated  terms,  the  sum  of  140  000,000  francs.     The  Em 


229  CHAPTER  XI. 

peror  Alexander,  during  the  interview  of  Erfurt,  gol  this  sum 
reduced  to  one  hundred  and  twenty  millions.  In  consequence 
ot  this,  a  new  convention  was  signed  at  Berlin  (Nov.  3,)  ac- 
cording to  which,  Stettin,  Custrin,  and  Glogau,  were  to  remain 
in  the  hands  of  the  French,  as  security  for  payment  of  the  sti- 
pulated sum  ;  the  rest  of  the  Prussian  states  were  evacuated. 

Austria  was  on  the  point  of  entering  into  the  fourth  coalition, 
when  the  peace  of  Tilsit  was  concluded.  From  that  moment 
the  Cabinet  of  Vienna  resolved  to  prepare  for  war  by  slow  and 
successive  operations,  which  might  appear  to  be  meiely  mea- 
sures of  precaution  ;  more  especially  by  organizing  her  armies 
on  better  principles,  and  training  all  the  citizens  to  arms,  by  the 
institution  of  a  militia  called  Landwehr,  that  they  might  be  in 
condition  to  act  on  the  spur  of  the  moment.  The  Archduke 
Charles,  who  was  appointed  Generalissimo,  superintended  all 
.hese  preparations,  and  succeeded  in  reviving  the  courage  of  the 
nation.  Although  these  armaments  could  not  escape  the  notice 
of  the  French  agents,  and  although  in  the  course  of  the  year 
1808,  and  especially  in  the  beginning  of  the  year  1S09,  they 
had  several  times  asked  for  explanations  on  this  subject,  never- 
theless. Count  Stadion  who  was  at  the  head  of  the  department 
for  foreign  affairs,  and  Count  Metternich  the  Austrian  minister 
at  Paris,  dissembled  so  well,  that  Bonaparte  never  dreamt  of 
war  till  it  was  on  the  very  point  of  breaking  out.  The  time 
chosen  for  this  was  when  the  French  armies  were  occupied  in 
Spain  and  Portugal. 

Reasons — or  it  may  be  rather  said  pretexts — were  not  want- 
ing to  Austria ;  for  undoubtedly  her  true  motive  was,  to  raise 
herself  from  that  state  of  abasement  into  which  she  had  sunk'. 
Violations  innumerable  of  the  peace  of  Presburg,  the  organiz- 
ing of  the  Confederation  of  the  Rhine,  the  compelling  her  to 
accede  to  the  Continental  System,  and  the  spoliation  of  the 
Bourbons  in  Spain,  were  causes  more  than  sufficient  to  justify 
her  having  recourse  to  arms.  The  war  which  Austria  under- 
took in  1809,  has  been  called  the  war  of  the  fifth  coalition.  It 
is  true  that  Great  Britain,  Portugal,  Spain,  and  the  King  of 
Sicily,  were  her  allies  ;  but,  with  the  exception  of  the  descent 
which  the  English  made  on  Zealand,  she  had  to  support  alone 
\he  whole  burden  of  the  war.  On  opening  the  campaign,  she 
made  an  appeal  to  the  German  nation,  which  was  answered  by 
the  Kings  of  Bavaria,  Wurtemberg,  and  Saxony,  by  a  declara- 
tion of  war. 

The  Austrians  had  divided  their  forces  into  three  armies  ; 
two  hundred  and  twenty  thousand  men,  under  the  Archduke 
Charles,  were  destined  to  act  in  Germany ;  the  Archduke  Fer* 


PERIOD  IX.     A.  P.  1802—1810.  239 

dinand  of  Este,  with  thirty-six  thousand  men,  was  to  penetrate 
through  the  dutchy  of  Warsaw  into  Prussia,  where  he  expected 
to  be  joined  by  the  troops  of  that  country.  The  Archduke 
John,  with  eighty  thousand  men,  was  to  enter  Italy.  The 
campaign  was  opened,  on  the  part  of  the  Austrians,  by  the  in- 
vasion of  Bavaria  (April  10,  1809.)  Bonaparte  at  first  beat  the 
Archduke  Louis  and  General  Hiller,  who  commanded  two  divi- 
sions, at  Abensberg  (April  20,)  and  thus  cut  them  off  from  the 
grand  army  under  the  Archduke  Charles.  The  latter  was  him- 
self defeated  at  Eckmuhl  and  Ratisbon,  three  days  after,  and 
effected  his  retreat  along  the  left  bank  of  the  Danube-  Bona  • 
parte  then  pursued  Hiller,  who  was  defeated  at  Ebersberg  (May 
3,)  and  retired  to  Krems,  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Danube.  Vi- 
enna in  consequence  was  left  defenceless,  and  surrendered  by 
capitulation  (May  13.)  It  was  there  that  Bonaparte  passed  the 
Danube,  and  fought  with  the  Archduke  at  EberdsorfF,  Aspern 
and  Essling,  two  most  sanguinary  engagements  (May  21 — 22,) 
in  which  the  French  lost  30,000  men.  He  then  retired  to  the 
Isle  of  Lobau,  where  his  army,  cut  off  from  provisions  and 
supplies,  passed  forty-eight  hours  in  great  distress,  until  they 
had  succeeded  in  reconstructing  the  bridges  which  the  floods  of 
the  Danube  had  carried  away.  In  Italy  the  Archduke  John 
had  defeated  Eugene  Beauharnais,  who  commanded  the  French 
army,  at  Sa^ile  ;  but  being  informed  of  the  defeat  at  Ratisbon, 
he  commenced  his  retreat,  and  was  defeated  near  the  Piave 
(May  8,)  after  which  he  retired  on  the  Raab,  where  he  was 
again  defeated  (June  14.)  Beauharnais  then  joined  the  army 
of  Napoleon.  The  Archduke  Ferdinand  took  possession  of 
Warsaw,  and  marched  as  far  as  Thorn,  where  he  took  from  the 
Prussians  one  hundred  pieces  of  cannon.  But  an  insurrection 
which  happened  in  the  rear  of  his  army,  obliged  him  to  retreat, 
when  the  Polish  troops  took  possession  of  Cracow  (July  14.) 

About  the  beginning  of  July,  Bonaparte  passed  over  to  the 
left  bank  of  the  Rhine.  The  battle  of  Enzersdorff,  where  Ber- 
nadotte  and  the  Saxons  distinguished  themselves,  was  bloody, 
but  not  decisive  :  next  day  (July  6,)  the  Archduke  Charles  was 
defeated  at  Wagram,  and  retreated  in  good  order  into  Moravia. 
An  armistice  was  then  concluded  near  Znaym  (July  12,)  on 
conditions  very  oppressive  for  Austria.  But  the  negotiations 
for  peace  were  long  protracted  ;  as  both  parties  were  waiting  the 
result  of  an  expedition  which  the  English  had  made  to  Zealand; 
and  as  Austria  hoped  that  Prussia,  and  perhaps  even  Russia, 
would  declare  in  her  favour. 

The  inhabitants  of  the  Tyrol ;  who  were  very  much  attached 
to  the  House  of  Austria,  from  whom  they  had  been  separated  at 

VOL.  II.  20 


230  CHAPTER  XI. 

the  peace  of  Presburg,  had  taken  up  arms  unjder  the  conduct  o! 
an  innkeeper,  named  Hoffer.  By  the  armistice  of  Znaym.  Aus- 
tria was  compelled  to  abandon  this  brave  people,  whom  the  Ba- 
varians  and  the  French  together  had  great  difficulty  in  reducing 
to  submission. 

We  cannot  pass  in  silence  the  bold  expedition  made  by  the 
Duke  of  Brunswick,  the  son  and  heir  of  him  who  had  command- 
ed at  Jena.  At  the  head  of  a  body  of  volunteers  which  he  had 
formed  in  Bohemia,  he  had  entered  Saxony  when  the  armistice 
was  concluded.  Not  being  disposed  to  accede  to  it,  he  traversed 
the  dutchy  of  Brunswick  and  the  whole  of  Lower  Saxony ;  beat 
the  Westphalian  General  Rewbel,  who  had  attempted  to  stop 
his  march  ;  and  reached  the  mouth  of  the  Elbe  in  safety,  where 
he  found  transports  which  took  him  and  his  army  on  board,  and 
conveyed  them  to  England. 

An  English  fleet,  commanded  by  Sir  Richard  Strachan,  with 
thirty-eight  thousand  troops,  under  the  command  of  the  Earl  of 
Chatham,  the  brother  of  Mr.  Pitt,  was  despatched  to  Zealand, 
with  the  intent  of  destroying  the  shipping,  dockyards,  and  arse- 
nals at  Antwerp  and  Flushing,  and  for  occupying  the  Island  of 
Walcheren.  They  landed  in  that  Island  (July  30,)  of  which 
they  took  possession,  and  made  themselves  masters  of  Flushing, 
after  a  siege  of  fifteen  days.  But  Lord  Chatham  found  it  im- 
possible to  execute  his  commission  with  regard  to  Antwerp,  on 
account  of  the  activity  of  Marshal  Bernadotte,  who  had  formed 
there  an  army  of  35,000  men.  The  whole  expedition  was  badly 
conducted,  and  in  about  four  months  Lord  Chatham  returned  to 
England.  The  English  destroyed  the  fortifications  of  Flushing, 
which  they  were  unable  to  retain. 

Russia,  as  the  ally  of  France,  likewise  took  part  in  this  war. 
A  body  of  troops,  commanded  by  Prince  Galitzin,  had  entered 
into  Galicia ;  but  it  was  merely  a  display,  by  which  Alexander 
meant  to  fulfil  an  engagement  that  he  had  contracted  with  re- 
luctance. The  peace  between  Austria  and  France  was  signed 
at  Schoenbrunn  (Oct.  14,  1809,)  which  regulated  the  territorial 
cessions  made  by  the  former  to  Bonaparte,  the  King  of  Saxony 
and  the  Emperor  of  Russia.  The  very  day  on  which  the  peace 
was  signed,  Bonaparte  united  the  territories  which  had  been 
ceded  to  him  directly  into  a  single  State,  under  the  name  of  the 
Tllyrian  Provinces^  which  he  governed  on  his  own  separate  ac- 
•iount,  without  annexing  them  to  France. 

A  decree  of  the  Senate,  of  the  2d  March  1809,  erected  the 
g'overnment  general  of  the  Tuscan  departments  into  a  grand 
Jignity  of  the  Empire,  to  be  conferred  on  a  Princess  of  the  Im- 
perial blood,  under  the  title  of  Grand  Dutchess.     This  lady  w^s 


PERIOD  IX.     A.  D.  1802—1810.  231 

iVTadam  Eliza  Bacciochi,  Princess  of  Lucca  and  Piombino,  who 
was  next  day  decorated  with  the  Arch-ducal  title.  On  the  same 
day,  Napoleon  ceded  the  Grand  Dutchy  of  Berg  to  his  nephew, 
the  son  of  the  King  of  Holland  ;  taking  the  government  on  him- 
self during  the  minority  of  that  child. 

No  outrage  had  been  able  to  overcome  the  perseverance  of 
Pius  VII.  Bonaparte  published  a  decree  at  Schoenbrunn  (May 
17,)  by  which  the  States  of  the  Pope  were  annexed  to  the  French 
Empire,  and  the  city  of  Rome  declared  a  free  Imperial  city 
The  union  of  the  States  did  take  place ;  but  Rome  had  no  ap- 
pearance of  a  free  city.  When  the  decree  was  put  in  execution 
(June  11,)  the  Pope  published  a  Bull  of  excommunication  against 
Bonaparte  and  his  adherents,  counsellors,  and  coadjutors.  From 
that  moment  the  venerable  captive  was  more  closely  imprisoned. 
On  the  night  of  the  5th  of  July,  he  was  forcibly  removed  from 
Rome  by  order  of  Napoleon,  and  transferred  to  Grenoble,  and 
thence  to  Savona,  where  he  was  detained  three  years  under 
rigorous  supervision. 

The  year  1809  proved  disastrous  for  the  French  arms  by  sea. 
The  captain  of  an  English  vessel,  and  Marques,  a  Portuguese 
colonel,  took  possession  of  the  Island  of  Cayenne  and  French 
Guiana  (Jan.  12.)  Lieutenant-General  Beckwith  and  Rear-Ad- 
miral Cochrane  took  Martinico  by  capitulation  (Feb.  12.)  Ad- 
miral Gambier  and  Lord  Cochrane  destroyed  a  French  fleet, 
commanded  by  the  Vice-Admirals  Villaumez  and  L'Allemand 
(April  11,)  in  Basque  Roads,  by  means  of  Congreve  rockets. 
The  French  fort  of  Senegal  fell  into  the  hands  of  the  English  in 
the  month  of  June  following.  General  Carmichael,  and  a  body 
of  Spaniards  who  had  arrived  from  Portorico,  expelled  the  French 
from  St.  Domingo  (July  7.)  Admiral  Collingwood  and  General 
Oswald  took  possession  of  the  Ionian  Islands  (Oct.  8.) 

Bonaparte  had  now  arrived  at  the  summit  of  his  grandeur, 
but  Providence  had  denied  him  a  family  by  his  wife  Josephine 
Tascher  de  la  Pagerie.  With  the  consent  of  both  parties,  a  de- 
cree of  the  Senate  pronounced  the  dissolution  of  that  marriage 
(Dec.  16  ;)  which  the  ecclesiastical  court  of  Paris  confirmed. 
Another  decree  of  the  Senate  (Feb.  17,  1810,)  conferred  on  the 
eldest  son  of  the  French  Emperor  the  title  of  King  of  Rome  ; 
ind  ordained,  that  the  Emperor  of  the  French  should  be  crowned 
a  second  time  at  Rome  within  the  ten  first  years  of  his  reign. 
Bonaparte  soon  after  (April  1,)  espoused  the  Arch-dutchess  Ma- 
ria Louisa,  eldest  daughter  of  the  Emperor  of  Austria. 

By  a  treaty  of  peace  concluded  at  Paris,  between  Bonaparte 
and  Charles  XIII.  of  Sweden,  this  latter  prince  regained  posses- 
sion of  Swedish  Pomerania  on  condition  of  acceding  to  the  Con 


^^  CHAPTER  XI. 

tinental  system,  though  under  certain  modifi(.'ations.  Had  Charles 
executed  this  engagement,  his  kingdom  would  have  been  ruined 
beyond  resource.  The  part  of  the  Hanoverian  States  belonging 
to  the  King  of  England  which  Bonaparte  had  still  reserved  in 
his  own  possession,  was  ceded  by  a  treaty  concluded  at  Paris 
(Jan.  14,)  to  his  brother  Jerome,  to  be  incorporated  with  the 
kingdom  of  Westphalia.  Besides  the  dutchy  of  Lauenberg, 
Bonaparte  reserved  to  himself  a  landed  revenue  of  four  millions 
five  hundred  and  fifty-nine  thousand  francs,  for  bestowing  in 
legacies  and  endowments. 

Louis  Bonaparte  had  reluctantly  accepted  the  crown  of  Hol- 
land ;  but  from  the  moment  he  had  placed  it  on  his  head,  he  de- 
voted himself  to  the  interests  of  the  country ;  and  resisted,  as 
far  as  prudence  would  allow,  the  arbitrary  orders  of  his  brother, 
when  he  judged  them  prejudicial  to  the  welfare  of  Holland. 
This  gave  rise  to  frequent  broils,  accompanied  sometimes  with 
threats.  Bonaparte  reproached  the  Dutch  Government,  more 
especially  for  not  earnestly  and  rigorously  enforcing  the  Con- 
tinental system,  so  pernicious  to  their  commerce.  At  the  be- 
ginning of  the  year  ISIO,  things  had  come  to  such  a  state,  that 
it  was  expected  Napoleon  would  cancel  the  kingdom  of  Holland 
from  the  list  of  European  States.  To  avert  this  calamity,  Louis 
signed  a  treaty  at  Paris  (March  16,)  by  which  a  body  of  12,000 
Dutch  and  6000  French  were  to  be  stationed  at  the  mouths  ot 
all  the  rivers,  to  protect  the  French  revenue-officers  who  were 
superintending  the  execution  of  Bonaparte's  orders.  Louis 
ceded  to  him  Dutch  Brabant,  Zealand,  and  a  part  of  Gueldres. 
of  which  the  Waal  was  henceforth  tc  form  the  frontier.  In  vain 
did  that  excellent  man  hope,  by  so  n'eat  a  sacrifice,  to  repur- 
chase the  independence  of  his  kingdoi.'?.  Under  pretext  of  cer- 
tain insults  which  the  French  agents  had  received  at  the  hands 
of  this  exasperated  people,  Bonaparte  sent  a  French  army  to 
occupy  the  whole  country.  Then  Louis  resigned  a  crown 
which  he  could  no  longer  wear  with  honour  ;  he  abdicated  in 
favour  of  his  son  (July  3.)  But  Napoleon,  indignant  at  a  mea- 
sure on  which  he  had  not  been  consulted,  annexed  the  kingdom 
of  Holland  to  the  French  Empire,  by  a  decree  dated  at  Ram- 
bouillet  (July  9.) 

Some  months  afterwards,  the  Republic  of  Valais,  which,  since 
the  year  1802,  had  formed  an  independent  State,  was  united  to 
the  French  Empire  by  a  decree  of  Bonaparte  (Nov.  12.)  Bat 
the  most  important  of  his  usurpations  in  1810,  and  that  which 
was  instrumental  in  working  his  downfall,  wus  the  union  of  the 
Hanseatic  countries  situated  on  the  coasts  of  the  North  Sea,  viz. 
certain  districts  of  Westphal       and  the  Grand  Dutchy  of  Berg 


PERIOD  IX.     A.  D.  1802—1810.  233 

»iorue  possessions  of  the  princes  of  Salm-Salm,  and  Sa.'m-KyT- 
burg',  part  of  the  dutchy  of  Oldenburg,  the  free  cities  of  Bremen 
a'->d  Hamburg,  as  well  as  the  city  of  Lubec  and  the  dutchy  of 
Lnuenburg.  By  a  decree  of  the  Senate  (Dec.  13,)  these  places 
nere  declared  united  to  France  ;  the  necessity  of  which  Bona- 
^iitie  had  stated  in  a  message  addressed  to  these  pliant  and  sub- 
iiiissive  bodies. 

France  still  retained  possession  of  Guadaloupe,  the  Isle  ol 
Bourbon,  and  the  Mauritius.  The  year  1810,  in  which  the 
greatness  of  Bonaparte  in  Europe  reached  its  summit,  deprived 
him  of  these  possessions.  General  Beckwith  and  Admiral 
Cochrane,  attacked  and  seized  Guadaloupe.  An  expedition 
sent  by  Lord  Minto,  the  English  Governor-General  in  India 
and  a  thousand  men  from  the  Cape,  reduced  the  Isle  of  Bour- 
bon (July  7,)  and  that  of  the  Mauritius  some  months  after. 

It  will  now  be  necessary  to  point  out  some  of  the  modifica- 
tions which  the  Continental  system  underwent.  The  English 
had  shown  some  disposition  to  put  an  end  to  that  unnatural  state 
of  commerce  which  preceding  measures  had  established.  They 
first  modified  the  Orders  of  1807  regarding  America ;  so  that 
the  Americans  were  permitted,  under  certain  conditions,  to  carry 
on  trade  in  all  ports  subject  to  French  influence,  which  were 
not  actually  under  blockade  ;  and  the  law  of  blockade  was  even 
restricted  to  the  ports  of  Holland  and  France,  and  those  of  the 
northern  part  of  Italy,  between  Pesaro  and  Orbitello.  The 
clause  in  the  decree  of  11th  November,  relative  to  the  payment 
of  a  compulsory  duty  in  England,  was  abolished. 

A  new  era  in  the  Continental  system  began  with  a  decree  ol 
Bonaparte  (Aug.  7,)  known  by  the  name  of  The  Decree  or  Tariff 
of  Trianon.  A  second,  by  way  of  supplement,  was  issued 
from  St.  Cloud  (Sept.  12.)  Making  a  distinction  between  the 
trade  and  the  produce  of  the  colonies  ;  and  availing  himself  ol 
the  universal  custom  which  had  rendered  the  latter  among  the 
necessaries  of  life,  he  resolved  to  take  advantage  of  this  cir- 
cumstance to  replenish  his  treasury,  by  permitting  their  impor- 
tation on  paying  an  ad  valorem  duty  of  50  per  cent.  A  third 
decree,  signed  at  Fontainbleau,  ordered  all  English  merchandise, 
found  in  France  or  her  dependencies,  to  be  seized  and  burnt. 
At  that  time,  France,  Switzerland,  Italy,  and  Germany,  were 
covered  with  bonfires,  which  destroyed  the  property  of  native 
merchants,  and  opened  a  new  prospect  for  English  manufactures 
one  day  to  replace  the  articles  that  were  thus  wantonly  consumed. 
We  shall  now  give  a  short  outline  of  the  most  remarkable 
events  that  took  place  in  the  rest  of  Europe,  during  this  period 
of  French  preponderance. 

VOL.  II.  20  ^ 


234  CHAPTER   XI. 

For  more  than  six  years  Portugal,  by  means  of  the  pecuniary 
sacrifices  which  she  had  made  to  the  French  crown,  haJ  main- 
tamed  her  neutrality  between  France  and  England.  But  as  she 
had  betrayed  her  predilection  for  England  during  the  Prussian 
war,  her  ruin  was  determined  on ;  and  as  she  could  no  longer 
conceal  from  herself  the  danger  of  her  position,  the  Prince  Ee- 
g-ent  entered  into  a  strict  alliance  with  Great  Britain,  by  a  con- 
vention signed  at  London  (Oct.  22,  1807.)  General  Junot  had 
laken  possession  of  the  country  after  the  Royal  family  had  em- 
barked for  Brazil ;  and  solemnly  declared,  that  the  House  of 
Braganza  had  ceased  to  reign  in  Europe  (Feb.  1,  1808.)  Fol- 
lowing the  example  of  the  Spaniards,  the  Portuguese  soon  shook 
off  the  yoke  of  the  oppressor.  The  city  of  Oporto  gave  the  first 
signal  of  insurrection  (June  6;)  an  English  army,  commanded 
by  Sir  Arthur  Wellesley,  landed  in  Mondego  Bay  (July  31,)  and 
defeated  Junot  at  Vimeiro  (Aug.  21.)  The  French  General, 
whose  army  was  reduced  to  a  most  distressing  state,  obtained 
from  General  Dalrymple,  who  had  taken  the  command  of  the 
English  troops,  a  capitulation  on  very  honourable  terms,  which 
was  concluded  at  Cintra  (Aug.  30.)  Junot,  and  his  troops,  were 
conveyed  to  France  in  English  vessels. 

The  Russian  Admiral  Siniawin  was  not  so  fortunate.  He 
was  then  lying  in  the  Tagus  with  a  fleet  of  nine  ships  of  the 
line,  and  a  frigate,  which  had  been  employed  in  the  war  against 
the  Turks  in  the  Archipelago,  and  found  himself  under  the  ne- 
cessity of  surrendering  his  fleet  to  Sir  Charles  Cotton  the  Eng- 
lish Admiral  (Sept.  3,)  which  was  not  to  be  restored  to  the  Em- 
peror until  the  conclusion  of  a  pacific  treaty  between  Russia  and 
Great  Britain.  The  convention  of  Cintra,  of  which  the  true 
circumstances  are  not  well  known,  excited  so  great  a  discontent 
in  England,  that  Sir  Heu  Dalrymple  and  Sir  Arthur  Wellesley 
were  called  home,  that  an  investigation  might  be  made  into  this 
unpopular  measure. 

During  their  absence,  and  after  the  affair  of  Corunna,  Soult 
received  orders  to  attempt  the  conquest  of  Portugal,  where  there 
were  not  more  than  8000  English  troops,  under  the  command  of 
General  Craddock,  and  an  army  of  the  natives.  At  the  head  of 
23,000  men  he  marched  towards  Chaves,  and  took  possession  of 
that  place  (March  7,)  which  is  one  of  the  frontier  fortresses  of 
ihe  kingdom.  But  on  his  arrival  at  Oporto  he  encountered  the 
Portuguese  army,  who  for  three  days  disputed  with  him  the 
possession  of  the  place.  ,  Here  he  remamed  a  full  month  before 
he  durst  proceed  on  his  march.  Meantime  General  Wellesley 
had  landed  at  Lisbon  with  a  new  English  army.  He  manoBU- 
vred  so  well  that  by  the  end  of  May,  Soult  was  obliged  to  retire 


PERIOD  IX.     A.  D.  1802—1810.  235 

into  Galicia,  with  the  loss  of  his  artillery  and  baggage.  Next 
yeai  the  French  sent  a  third  expedition  to  Portugal,  but  as  this 
belongs  more  properly  to  the  war  in  Spain,  we  shall  take  ofca- 
5>icn  to  notice  it  afterwards.  After  the  retreat  of  Soult,  the  Por- 
tuguese acted  a  considerable  part  in  the  liberation  of  Europe, 
Oeneral  Wellesley,  who  was  intrusted  with  very  extensive 
powers,  organized  their  army,  and  augmented  it  to  49,000  men, 
wi;h  the  assistance  of  600,OOOZ.  Sterling,  which  England  fur 
nished  for  that  purpose. 

The  connexion  between  Great  Britain  and  Portugal,  became 
stiU  more  intimate  by  the  treaty  of  alliance  which  was  conclu- 
ded at  Rio  Janeiro  (Feb.  19, 1811.)  George  III.  there  promised 
never  to  recognise  any  King  of  Portugal  but  the  heir  and  legiti- 
mate representative  of  the  House  of  Braganza.  The  Regent 
granted  Britain  the  right  of  building  ships  of  war  in  Brazil,  and 
of  supplying  themselves  with  timber  for  the  purpose  from  the 
forests  of  that  country  ;  and  by  abrogating  certain  former  stipu- 
lations, he  agreed  to  receive  into  his  ports  as  many  British  ves- 
sels as  chose  to  enter.  The  Regent  likewise  promised  to  co- 
operate with  England  for  the  abolition  of  the  Slave  Trade  ;  and 
this  is  the  first  example  of  a  stipulation  of  the  kind.  Together 
v\^ith  this  treaty  there  was  also  concluded  a  treaty  of  commerce, 
Towards  the  end  of  1810  Portugal  became  the  theatre  of  war, 
as  we  shall  observe  when  we  come  to  speak  of  Spain. 

Charles  IV.  King  of  Spain,  had  flattered  himself  that  by  sub- 
mitting to  the  payment  of  subsidies  to  France,  according  to  the 
treaty  of  October  30,  1803,  he  would  be  exempted  from  the  ne- 
cessity of  taking  part  in  the  war  which  had  broken  out  between 
Bonaparte  and  England  ;  and  it  was  on  the  faith  of  this  that 
the  latter  power  had  commenced  hostilities.  Four  Spanish 
ships  returning  to  Europe,  loaded  with  treasures  and  valuable 
merchandise  from  South  America,  were  seized  off  Cape  St. 
Mary  (Oct.  5,  1804,)  by  an  English  squadron.  After  that  act 
of  hostility,  which,  but  for  the  negotiation  that  had  preceded  it, 
might  have  been  regarded  as  a  violation  of  the  law  of  nations, 
Charles  IV.  declared  war  against  England  (Dec.  12  ;)  and  the 
following  year  he  had  the  mortification  to  see  his  marine  totally 
destroyed  by  the  battle  of  Trafalgar,  which  Admiral  Nelson 
gained  over  the  combined  fleets  of  Gravina  and  Villeneuve. 

In  1806  the  English  made  an  attempt  to  get  possession  of  the 
Spanish  colony  of  Buenos  Ayres.  The  expedition  sailed  from 
St.  Helena  under  the  command  of  Admiral  Sir  Home  Popham. 
The  troops  were  commanded  by  General  Beresford.  Buenos 
Ayres  capitulated  on  the  2d  July ;  there  the  Enghsh  found  nu* 
merous  treasures  which  were  transported  to  Europe ;  but  &n 


236  CHAPTER  XT. 

'nsurrection  of  the  inhabitants,  headed  by  a  Spaniard  name(J 
Pi^eridon,  and  Liners  a  native  of  France,  obliged  General  Beres- 
^ord  to  surrender  himself  and  his  troops  prisoners  of  war  (Augf. 
12. \  Admiral  Popham  took  possession  of  Maldonado  (Oct.  ^iJ,} 
where  he  remained  in  expectation  of  the  supplies  which  he  ex- 
necTed  to  come  from  England.  General  Auchmuty  landed  ai 
Maldonado  in  the  beginning  of  the  following  year,  and  took  ihe 
town  of  Monte  Video  by  assault  (Feb.  2.)  New  reinforcements 
having  arrived  from  England,  General  Whitelocke  again  attaok- 
ed  Buenos  Ayres,  and  penetrated  into  the  town  (July  5  ;)  but 
Liniers,  at  the  head  of  the  Spaniards,  made  so  able  a  defence^ 
that  the  English  General  signed  a  capitulation,,  by  which  he  ob- 
tained the  restitution  of  all  British  prisoners  ;  and  the  English 
promised  to  evacuate  Monte  Video  within  the  space  of  two 
months. 

Charles  IV.  and  his  minister,  during  the  war  with  Prussin, 
had  shown  a  desire  to  shake  off  the  yoke  of  Bonaparte.  By 
signing  at  Fontainbleau  the  partition  of  Portugal,  they  opened 
a  way  for  the  French  armies  into  Spain,  who  took  possession  of 
St.  Sebastian,  Pampeluna,  Figueras,.  and  Barcelona  ;  and  were 
even  masters  of  Madrid  while  one  part  of  the  Spanish  army 
were  occupied  in  Portugal,  and  the  other  in  Denmark,  The  con- 
sequences of  these  imprudences  were,  the  overturning  of  Spain^ 
and  the  dethronement  of  the  House  of  Bourbon,  as  we  have 
noticed  above. 

When  the  Spaniards  rose  in  rebellion  against  the  royal  intru- 
der, they  formed  themselves  into  Juntas,  or  directorial  commit- 
tees, in  every  province.  That  of  Seville,  which  was  composed 
of  enterprising  men,  took  the  lead  in  the  insurrection,  declared 
war  against  Bonaparte  in  the  name  of  Ferdinand  VII.,  and  con- 
cluded an  armistice  with  England.  Their  authority  was  not 
acknowledged  by  the  Provincial  Juntas,  each  of  which  had  set 
on  foot  an  army  of  their  own.  All  these  armies  engaged  the 
French  troops  wherever  they  met  them,  and  were  veiy  often 
vanquished.  The  insurrection  did  not  come  to  a  head  till  after 
the  battle  of  Baylen  (July  20,  180S,)  where  14,000  French 
troops,  under  Generals  Dupont  and  Vidal,  laid  down  their  arms. 
Castanos,  to  whom  this  success  was  owing,  was  then  appointed 
Generalissimo  ;  and  the  Junta  organized  a  Regency,  at  the  head 
of  which  they  placed  the  old  Cardinal  de  Bourbon.  There  were 
two  other  events  which  greatly  encouraged  the  Spaniards ;  the 
one  was  the  expulsion  of  Le  Febvre  from  Saragossa  by  General 
Palafox,  and  the  other  the  arrival  of  the  Marquis  de  la  Romana 
at  Corunna  with  7000  men,  who  had  been  conveyed  to  the  is- 
land of  Funen  for  invading  Sweden,  but  had  embarked,  m  spite 
of  the  French,  to  come  to  the  assistance  of  their  country 


PERIOD  IX.      A.  D.  1802—1810.  ii^ 

Joseph.  Bonaparte  having  abandoned  Madrid  and  retired  to 

Burg-OS  (Aug.  1,)  a  Central  Junta  was  established  at  Aranjuez. 
This  Junta  raised  three  armies  :  that  of  the  North,  under  Blake 
«nd  Romana  ;  that  of  the  Centre,  under  Castanos ;  and  that  of 
Arragon,  under  Palafox.  Immediately  after  the  interview  al 
Erfurt,  Bonaparte  placed  himself  at  the  head  of  his  army,  which 
had  been  increased  to  180,000  men  ;  and  after  gaining  several 
■advantages  over  the  enemy,  he  sent  back  his  brother  Joseph  to 
Madrid.  Meantime,  two  divisions  of  the  English  arm}'-  having 
arrived,  the  one  from  Lisbon,  and  the  other  from  Corunna,  they 
formed  a  junction  in  the  province  of  Leon,  under  the  command 
of  Sir  John  Moore.  Bonaparte  marched  against  th«m,  but  they 
thought  it  prudent  to  retire.  Having  arrived  at  Astorga,  he  re- 
■ceived  intelligence  of  the  preparations  of  the  Austrians,  when 
he  set  out  for  Paris,  leaving  the  command  of  the  army  to  Soult, 
who  obliged  the  English  to  embark  at  Corunna,  after  a  severe 
•engagement  in  which  Sir  John  Moore  lost  his  life.  A  treaty  of 
peace  and  alliance  was  signed  at  London  between  England  and 
the  Supreme  Junta,  acting  in  the  name  of  Ferdinand  VII.  (Jan. 
14,  1809.)  England  sent  into  Portugal  a  new  army,  under  the 
"ommand  of  Sir  A.  Wellesky.  The  second  siege  of  Saragossa, 
which  was  undertaken  first  by  Junot,  and  continued  by  Lannes, 
fv^as  one  of  the  most  extraordinar}'-  events  in  modern  war.  The 
•garrison,  commanded  by  Palafox,  and  th^  inhabitants  of  the  place 
vho  were  completely  devoted  to  him,  performed  prodigies  of 
falour.  When  the  French  took  the  city  (Feb.  21,)  it  presented 
nothing  but  a  mass  of  ruins.  It  was  calculated  that  above  100,000 
•nen  perished  in  that  siege. 

Marshal  Victor  defeated  Cuesta  at  Medellin  (March  28,)  and 
Sachet  defeated  General  Blake  at  Belchite  (June  16  :)  but  Soult, 
who  had  penetrated  into  Portugal,  was  repulsed  by  Wellesley^ 
who  fought  the  bloody  battle  of  Talavera  with  Marshals  Jourdan. 
and  Victor,  which  turned  to  the  disadvantage  of  the  French. 
The  misconduct  of  the  army  of  Cuesta,  which  had  been  con- 
joined with  that  of  Wellesley  in  this  battle,  determined  the  latter 
henceforth  to  carry  on  a  defensive  war  with  the  English  and 
Portuguese  alone  ;  and  to  leave  to  the  Spaniards  the  care  of 
occupying  the  French,  by  harassing  their  troops  incessantly, 
destroying  their  convoj^s  and  magazines,  and  surprising  their 
entrenchments.  The  battle  of  Ocana  (Nov.  19,)  which  Cuesta 
fought  with  General  Mortier  and  lost,  was  the  last  pitched  bat- 
tle which  the  Spaniards  fought.  From  that  time  they  confined 
themselves  to  a  Guerilla  warfare,  by  which  they  did  infinite 
damage  to  the  enemy. 

In  1809,  the  Central  Junta  retired  to  Seville.     Towards  the 


238  CHAPTER  XI. 

end  of  the  year,  they  were  replaced  by  an  Executive  Directory 
of  nine  members  ;  and  next  year  these  were  superseded  in  their 
turn  by  a  Regency  of  five  members,  which  was  established  at 
Cadiz.  An  assembly  of  the  Cortes  was  summoned  to  meet 
there,  the  members  of  which  were  nominated,  not  by  the  clergy, 
the  nobility,  and  the  cities,  which  composed  the  legitimate  States 
of  Spain,  but  by  the  great  body  of  the  inhabitants.  That  assem- 
bly, who  could  do  no  more  for  the  defence  of  their  country,  em- 
ployed themselves  in  establishing  a  democratic  constitution  in 
Spain,  destroying  by  degrees  all  the  institutions^  of  the  monarchy. 

Soult,  who  was  commander-in-chief  of  tho  army  of  the  South, 
conquered  the  whole  of  Andalusia  in  1810,  with  the  exception 
of  Cadiz,  which  Victor  had  in  vain  attempted  to  besiege.  The 
principal  efforts  of  the  French  were  then  turned  towards  Portu- 
gal ;  and  on  this  occasion  Massena  was  ordered  to  undertake 
the  reduction  of  that  country,  at  the  head  of  70,000  men.  Junot 
laid  siege  to  Ciudad  Rodrigo,  which  sun-endered  after  a  vigorous 
defence  (July  10.)  Almeida  was  likewise  obliged  to  capitulate 
a  few  weeks  after  (August  27.)  These  conquests  were  made, 
without  any  apparent  wish  on  the  part  of  the  English  commander, 
recently  created  Lord  Wellington,  to  prevent  them.  He  had 
then  begun  to  carry  into  execution  the  plan  of  defensive  warfare 
which  he  had  conceived  after  the  battle  of  Talavera.  In  the 
spring  he  was  stationed  on  the  Coa,  and  began  to  retreat  after 
the  fall  of  Ciudad  Rodrigo ;  nor  did  he  stop  till  he  had  reached 
Torres  Vedras.  Four  months  were  employed  in  effecting  this 
slow  retrograde  march,  Massena  followed  him  every  step,  suf- 
fering from  continual  fatigue  and  daily  skirmishes ;  and  strug- 
gling against  famine,  as  the  English  army  had  destroyed  every 
thing  that  lay  in  their  way.  Towards  the  end  of  October,  Lord 
Wellington  took  up  an  impregnable  position,  where  for  four 
months  the  French  General  found  all  his  manoeuvres  unsuccess- 
ful Lord  Wellington  took  advantage  of  this  interval  to  secure 
considerable  reinforcements  which  arrived  from  Lisbon.  He  was 
thus  prepared  to  fall  upon  his  adversary,  when  the  impossibility 
of  subsisting  longer  in  an  exhausted  country  should  at  length 
compel  him  to  retreat. 

When  giving  a  summary  of  the  history  of  France,  we  spoke 
of  the  renewal  of  hostilities  between  Bonaparte  and  Great  Britain 
in  1803,  as  well  as  of  the  part  which  the  latter  took  in  the  Con- 
tinental wars  of  1805,  1807,  and  1809.  The  eflforts  which  she 
had  made  to  support  these  expenses,  added  a  frightful  increase 
to  her  national  debt ;  but  the  constantly  increasing  progress  of 
her  commerce  furnished  her  with  the  means  of  meeting  this 
enormous  expenditure.     In  vain  had  Bonaoarte  expected  to  ruin 


TERior  IX.     A.  D.  1802—1810.  9.19 

^e  mdustry  of  England  by  the  Continental  system.  In  the 
Fiench,  Spanish,  and  Dutch  colonies  which  she  conquered,  she 
fo\ind  new  channels  to  supply  the  place  of  those  which  were 
shut  against  her  on  the  Continent  of  Europe.  The  Empire  of 
^he  sea  still  remained  in  the  possession  of  the  British  ;  and.  in 
1807,  they  annihilated  the  marine  of  Denmark,  the  only  king- 
dom which  then  retained  any  maritime  power.  But  of  this  cir- 
cumstance we  shall  speak  hereafter. 

The  year  1806  is  remarkable  for  the  abolition  of  the  slave 
trade  in  the  English  colonies.  Since  1785,  the  Blacks  had  found 
zealous  advocates  in  the  British  Parliament,  amongst  whom  Fox, 
Wilberforce,  and  Pitt,  were  the  most  distinguished.  But  the 
British  Government,  too  sagacious  to  enter  precipitately  into  a 
measure  which  might  endanger  the  fortune  of  the  planters,  and 
even  the  tranquillity  of  the  colonies,  wished  first  to  consult  ex- 
perience on  the  subject,  and  to  leave  the  proprietors  time  to  pre- 
pare themselves  for  a  different  order  of  things.  For  twenty 
years  they  had  refused  to  adopt  the  bill  which  Mr.  Wilberforce 
regularly  laid  before  the  Parliament,  to  demand  restrictive  laws 
against  the  trade.  It  was  not  until  Mr,  Fox  and  Lord  Grenville 
entered  into  the  ministry,  that  this  question  occupied  their  serious 
deliberations.  An  Act  of  Parliament,  ratified  by  the  King  (May 
16,  1806,)  forbade  the  exportation  of  slaves  from  the  English 
colonies,  and  conveying  them  into  foreign  colonies.  A  Bill  of 
the  6th  February  1807,  which  was  ratified  by  the  King  on  the 
17th  March  following,  enacted,  that  the  slave  trade  should  ac- 
tually cease  from  the  date  of  May  1st  ensuing  ;  providing,  how- 
ever, that  vessels  already  departed  rn  the  trade  should  be  allowed 
to  import  slaves  into  the  West  Indies  until  the  1st  January  1808 

Of  all  the  countries  which  were  brought  under  the  yoke  of 
Napoleon,  the  most  unfortunate  without  dispute  was  Holland. 
Her  commerce,  the  only  resource  of  her  numerous  inhabitants, 
was  annihilated  by  the  Continental  system  ;  her  finances  were 
in  such  a  state  of  disorder,  that,  in  spite  of  all  their  economy, 
the  annual  deficit  was  regularly  about  twenty  millions  of  flo- 
rins :  her  inhabitants  were  harassed  as  much  by  the  soldiers  of 
Bonaparte  as  by  his  revenue  officers ;  and  as  if  r^ature,  in  con- 
cert with  political  oppression,  had  conspired  her  ruin,  her  soil 
was  laid  waste,  and  her  industry  destroyed  by  periodical  inun 
dations,  fires,  and  other  calamities.  Such  is  the  picture  which 
that  wretched  country  presented  up  to  the  moment  when  Bona- 
parte extinguished  the  feeble  remains  of  independence  which  it 
enjoyed.  After  various  alterations,  that  Republic  obtained  a 
constitution  similar  to  that  which  had  existed  in  France  since 
1804.     M.  Schimmelpennink  was  placed  at  the  head  of  the  go 


§40  CHAPTER  XI. 

vemment  (April  1805,)  under  the  title  of  Grand  Pensionary, 
and  vested  with  such  powers  as  the  last  Stadtholders  had  neve? 
exercised,  even  after  the  revolution  of  1788.  We  have  already 
observed  how  this  power,  together  with  the  Royal  title,  were 
rendered  hereditary  in  favour  of  Louis  Bonaparte  ;  and  how 
the  Dutch  monarchy  vanished  at  the  fiat  of  Napoleon. 

Switzerland,  with  the  exception  of  some  partial  commotions 
which  are  scarcely  worthy  of  remark,  had  remained  tranquil 
under  the  system  of  government  which  Bonaparte  had  pre- 
scribed in  the  act  of  mediation  (Feb.  19,  1803.)  The  Conti- 
nental System,  and  the  prohibition  laid  on  the  greater  part  oi 
Swiss  commodities  in  France,  paralyzed  their  industry  and 
their  commer(;e ;  and  caused  many  of  the  inhabitants  to  emi 
grate,  who  for  the  most  part  directed  their  course  towards  North 
America.  A  treaty  which  General  Ney  ha<l  signed  at  Friburg 
(Sept.  27,)  regulated  the  connections  between  France  and  the 
Helvetic  Confederation,  in  a  manner  more  advantageous  for  that 
country  than  in  the  time  of  the  Directory.  Bonaparte  was  sa- 
tisfied with  a  defensive  alliance  ;  but  the  Swiss  agreed  to  im- 
port from  the  mines  of  France  their  stock  of  salt,  which  they 
had  till  then  been  in  the  habit  of  receiving  partly  from  Bavaria 
This  stock  amounted  to  two  hundred  thousand  quintals  per  an 
num  ;  and  the  revenue  which  France  derived  from  furnishing 
this  article,  was  sufficient  to  support  more  than  20,000  troops. 
At  the  same  time  a  military  capitulation  wa?-  signed,  by  which 
Bonaparte  took  into  his  service  sixteen  thousand  Swiss  volun- 
teers. It  must  appear  astonishing,  that  in  this  nation  of  war- 
riors, a  sufficient  number  could  not  be  found  to  make  up  the 
complement  of  16,000  men.  The  incomplete  state  of  the  Swiss 
regiments  was  a  subject  of  perpetual  complaint  with  Bonaparte. 

The  number  of  the  Italian  States  had  been  perpetually  di- 
minishing ;  and  about  the  time  of  which  we  now  speak,  that 
peninsula  was  entirely  subjected  to  the  influence  of  Bonaparte, 
and  divided  nominally  between  France,  Naples,  and  the  kingdom 
of  Italy  ;  excepting  the  small  Republic  of  St.  Marino,  which 
preserved  its  independence  in  the  midst  of  the  general  convulsion. 
The  Italian  Republic,  which  since  the  year  1805  had  borne  the 
title  of  the  kingdom  of  Italy,  was  oppressed  by  the  enormous 
load  of  contributions  which  were  exacted  for  the  support  of  the 
French  troops,  as  well  as  by  payments  for  the  civil  list  of  the 
Ki*\g  and  his  viceroy.  That  country  submitted  with  great  im- 
patience to  the  law  of  the  military  conscription,  which  was  con- 
trary to  the  feelings  and  customs  of  the  inhabitants.  It  obtained 
considerable  aggrandizements  after  the  peace  of  Presburg  by 
die  union  of  the  Venetian  provinces  in  1807,  and  by  that  of  thf 


PERIOD  IX.       A.  D.   1802 1810.  24i 

four  provinces  of  the  Ecclesiastical  States  ;  but  these  accessions 
made  no  addition  to  its  happiness.  Eugene  Beauharnais,  dig- 
nified with  the  title  of  Prince  of  Venice,  was  proclaimed  heir 
to  the  throne  of  Italy,  failing  the  male  descendants  of  Bonaparte. 

The  kingdom  of  Naples  was  overthrown  about  the  beginning 
of  1806.  Ferdinand  IV.,  had  retired  to  Sicily,  and  Joseph  Bo- 
naparte was  put  in  his  place  ;  but  he  had  occupied  that  unstable 
throne  only  two  years,  when  he  exchanged  it  for  another  still 
more  insecure.  But  before  surrendering  the  kingdom  of  Naples 
to  Joachim  Murat  who  was  appointed  his  successor  (June  28, 
1S08,)  he  wished  to  immortalize  his  nam  by  giving  a  new  con- 
stitution to  that  kingdom,  which  was  guaranteed  by  Bonaparte. 
The  attempts  which  Murat  made  to  conquer  Sicily  proved 
abortive. 

Germany  had  experienced  two  complete  revolutions  in  course 
of  the  nine  years  of  which  we  have  given  a  short  summary 
The  constitution  of  the  Germanic  Empire  was  changed  in  se- 
veral essential  respects  by  the  Resolutions  of  the  Deputation  of 
Katisbon.  Of  all  the  ecclesiastical  princes  that  belonged  to  the 
Germanic  body,  one  only  was  retained,  viz.  the  Elector,  Arch- 
Chancellor,  who  took  the  place  of  the  ancient  Elector  of  May- 
ence  ;  the  Grand  Master  of  the  Teutonic  Knights,  was  secu- 
larized. The  territories  of  the  rest,  as  well  as  the  revenues  of 
all  ecclesiastical  endowments,  mediate  or  immediate,  were  em- 
ployed either  to  indemnify  the  hereditary  princes  who  had  lost 
the  whole  or  a  part  of  their  estates  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Rhine, 
or  to  aggrandize  those  whom  the  policy  of  Bonaparte  chose 
to  favour.  In  place  of  the  two  Ecclesiastical  Electors  who 
were  suppressed,  four  lay  Electors  were  appointed,  one  of  whom 
only  was  a  Catholic,  that  of  Saltzburg,  who  had  formerly  been 
the  Grand  Duke  of  Tuscany,  and  three  were  Protestants,  those 
of  Wurtemberg,  Baden,  and  Hesse-Cassel. 

The  House  of  Orange  obtained  the  bishopric  of  Fulda  and 
other  territories  ;  Brisgau  and  Ortenau  were  ceded  to  the  Duke  of 
Modena,  who  left  them  at  his  death  to  his  son-in-law  the  Arch- 
duke Ferdinand.  The  relation  between  the  two  religions  was 
still  more  unequal  in  the  College  of  Princes,  where  the  Pro- 
testants had  acquired  so  great  a  superiority  that  the  head  of  the 
Empire  refused  to  ratify  that  article  of  the  Resolutions.  The 
free  cities  were  reduced  to  six,  viz.  Augsburg,  Lubec,  Nurem- 
berg,. Frankfort,  Bremen,  and  Hamburg.  The  immediate  nobi- 
lity were  retained  ;  but  those  of  them  who  were  entitled  to 
indemnity  were  disappointed,  as  nothing  remained  to  be  distri- 
buted. In  place  of  the  existing  duties  payable  on  the  Rhine, 
a  rate  of  navigation  was   established,  the  proceeds  of  which 

VOL.  II.  21 


•249  CHAPTER   XI 

were  to  be  divided  between  France  and  Germany  ;  a  part  of  tJif* 
endowment  of  the  Arch-Chancellor  was  founded  on  that  revenue- 

The  execution  of  the  Resolutions  of  the  Deputation,  gave  rise 
to  several  conventions  among  the  States  of  the  Empire,  as  well 
as  to  a  great  variety  of  claims.  So  many  difficulties  had  arisen 
on  this  occasion,  especially  from  the  refusal  of  the  Emperor  to 
sanction  the  Resolution,  without  certain  modifications,  that  the 
Empire  was  abolished  before  ibis  new  fundamental  law  could 
be  carried  into  practice  in  all  its  bearings.  The  peace  of  Pres- 
burg  had  created  two  new  Kings  in  the  centre  of  Germany, 
namely,  the  Electors  of  Bavaria  and  Wurtemberg,  who  had  as- 
sumed that  dignity.  These  two  princes,  with  the  Elector  of 
Baden,  were  declared  sovereigns,  and  obtained  territorial  addi- 
tions at  the  expense  of  Austria,  the  Knights  of  St.  John  of  Jeru- 
salem, and  the  city  of  Augsburg.  The  King  of  Bavaria  annex- 
ed that  free  city  to  his  Estates.  The  Elector  of  Saltzburg  ex- 
changed all  that  the  Resolutions  of  the  Imperial  Deputation  had 
given  him  for  the  principality  of  Wurtzburg  which  was  taken 
from  the  King  of  Bavaria,  to  which  the  Electoral  title  was 
transferred.  The  Grand  Mastership  of  the  Teutonic  Knights 
was  secularized  in  favour  of  a  prince  of  the  House  of  Austria. 
The  heir  of  the  Duke  of  Modena  lost  Brisgau,  and  Ortenau, 
which  fell  to  the  Elector  of  Baden. 

The  annihilation  of  the  German  Empire,  the  germ  of  which 
is  to  be  found  in  that  treaty,  was  effected  by  the  Confederation 
of  the  Rhine,  which  the  Kings  of  Bavaria  and  Wurtemberg,  the 
Arch-Chancellor,  the  Elector  of  Baden,  the  Dukes  of  Cleves  and 
Berg,  the  Landgrave  of  Hesse-Darmstadt,  the  Princes  of  Hohen- 
zollern,  Salm,  Isemburg,  Lichtenstein  and  Aremberg,  and  Count 
Leyen,  concluded  with  Bonaparte  (July  6,  1806,)  who  was 
named  Protector  of  the  League,  as  they  announced  in  their  de- 
clarations to  the  Diet.  The  act  by  which  the  Emperor  Francis 
II.  abdicated  the  crown  of  Germany  (Aug.  6,)  completed  the  dis- 
solution of  the  Germanic  body.  The  princes  who  had  joined 
that  confederation  usurped  the  sovereignty,  instead  of  the  mere 
superiority  which  they  had  formerly  enjoyed  under  the  authori- 
ty of  the  Empire.  By  overthrowing  the  barriers  which  the  laws 
and  institutions  of  the  country,  the  most  ancient  customs,  and 
conventions,  had  opposed  to  the  encroachments  of  absolute 
power,  they  set  a  fatal  example  of  trampling  under  foot  the  well 
acquired  rights  of  their  people.  They  carried  their  injustice 
still  farther.  They  usurped  dominion  over  the  princes,  pro- 
vinces, and  cities,  their  associates  and  coequals,  who  were  un 
fortunately  placed  in  their  neighbourhood ;  and  who  had  not 
been  apprized  in  time  that  they  might  repair  to  Paris,  in  order 


PERIOD  IX.      A.  D.  1802—1810.  24? 

to  co-operate  in  that  transaction,  or  counteract  iW  intriguey  by 
which  it  was  accomplished. 

The  Elector  Arch-Chancellor  then  assumed  the  dignity  of 
Prince  Primate  ;  the  Elector  of  Baden,  the  Dukes  of  Berg  and 
"Cleves,  and  the  Landgrave  of  Hesse-Darmstadt  took  the  title  of 
Grand  Dukes ;  to  which  the  act  of  the  12th  July  attached  the 
prerogatives  of  the  royal  dignity.  The  head  of  the  house  of 
Nassau  took  the  dignity  of  Duke,  and  Count  Leyen  that  of 
Prince.  A  federal  Diet,  divided  into  two  chambers,  was  to  de- 
liberate on  the  general  interests  of  the  union  ;  but  that  assembly 
never  met.  Of  the  six  free  cities  which  the  Deputation  had 
preserved,  the  King  of  Bavaria  had  Augsburg  adjudged  to  him 
by  the  peace  of  Presburg  ;  he  afterwards  obtained  Nuremberg 
by  an  act  of  the  Confederation.  Frankfort  fell  to  the  share  of 
the  Prince  Primate ;  so  that  there  remained  only  three  of  the 
Hanseatic  towns. 

Several  other  princes  entered  successively  into  the  Confedera- 
tion of  the  Rhine  ;  but  none  of  these  accessions  were  voluntary. 
They  all  took  place  in  consequence  of  the  war  with  Prussia, 
which  broke  out  in  October  1806.  These  princes,  taken  accord- 
ing to  the  order  of  accession,  were  the  following : — The  Elector 
■of  Wurtzburg,  the  old  Elector  of  Saltzburg,  who  took  the  grand 
'ducal  title,  the  King  of  Saxony,  the  Dukes  of  Saxony^  the  Houses 
of  Anhalt  and  Schwartzburg,  the  Prince  of  Waldeck,  the  Houses 
of  Lippe  and  Reuss,  the  King  of  Westphalia,  the  House  of 
Mecklenburg,  and  the  Duke  of  Oldenburg.  Thus  all  Germany, 
with  a  fev/  exceptions,  entered  in  succession  into  that  Confede- 
ration. 

Several  other  changes  occurred  in  the  Rhenish  Confedera- 
tion, especially  after  the  peace  of  Schoenbrunn.  The  grand 
dutchy  of  Berg  received  considerable  accessions.  The  kingdom 
-of  Westphalia  was  augmented  in  1810,  by  the  union  of  the  States 
of  the  King  of  England  in  Germany,  with  the  exception  of  the 
dutchy  of  Lunenburg,  as  has  been  already  mentioned.  Within 
a  short  time  after  he  had  disposed  of  the  territory  of  Hanover, 
Bonaparte  formed  the  grand  dutchy  of  Frankfort,  by  adding  the 
district  of  Fulda,  and  the  greater  part  of  the  county  of  Hanau, 
10  the  possessions  of  the  Prince  Primate  ;  with  the  deduction  of 
the  principality  of  Ratisbon,  on  condition  that  after  the  death  of 
the  Prince  Primate,  who  had  assumed  the  title  of  the  Grand 
Duke  of  Frankfort,  these  territories  should  pass  to  Eugene  Beau- 
harnais  and  his  male  descendants  ;  and  failing  these,  they  should 
revert  to  the  Crown  of  France.  The  Grand  Duke  ceded  to 
Napoleon  the  principality  of  Ratisbon,  and  his  moiety  of  the 
4iavigation-dues  on  the  Rhino. 


244  CHAPTER   XT. 

The  Factor  of  Bavaria  had  lost  by  the  peace  of  Luneville 
that  pare  J  the  Palatinate  situated  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Rhine, 
with  the  dutchy  of  Deux-ponts.  The  Deputation  of  1803  de- 
prived him  of  the  rest  of  the  Palatinate  ;  but  that  act  amply 
compensated  him,  by  making  over  to  him  the  bishoprics  of 
Bamberg,  Wurtzburg,  Freisingen,  Passau,  and  Augsburg,  with 
several  abbeys  and  free  citie?.  By  the  peace  of  Presbnrg,  Bo- 
naparte took  Wurtzburg  from  him  ;  but  he  gave  him  in  lieu  of 
it  a  considerable  part  of  the  spoils  of  Austria,  especially  the 
county  of  Tyrol,  which  contained  more  than  700,000  inhabitants. 
To  recompense  that  monarch  for  the  zeal  which  he  had  displayed 
1809,  Bonaparte  put  him  in  possession  of  the  principalities  of 
Baireuth  and  Ratisbon,  the  dutchy  of  Saltzburg,  with  Berch- 
tolsgaden,  and  the  part  of  Lower  Austria  which  the  Emperor 
had  renounced  by  the  peace  of  Schcenbrunn.  In  return,  the 
King  of  Bavaria  ceded  back  a  part  of  the  Tyrol,  containing  about 
305,000  souls,  which  was  annexed  either  to  the  kingdom  of 
Italy  or  the  Illyrian  provinces. 

By  the  peace  of  Luneville,  the  Austrian  monarchy  had  lost, 
in  point  of  extent  and  population ;  but  she  had  gained  an  addi- 
tion of  six  millions  of  francs  to  her  revenue.  The  government 
had  to  struggle  incessantly  against  the  ruinous  state  of  the  ex- 
chequer, and  the  over-circulation  of  paper  money.  Neither  loans 
nor  economy  could  recover  them.  The  embarrassed  state  of  his 
finances  was  still  more  increased  by  the  disastrous  war  of  1805. 
The  peace  of  Presburg  cost  the  Emperor  the  States  that  formerly 
belonged  to  the  Venetians,  the  Tyrol,  and  all  the  possessions  of 
his  House  in  Swabia.  He  acquired  nothing  by  that  treaty,  ex- 
cept the  dutchy  of  Saltzburg  and  Berchtolsgaden.  His  losses 
amounted  to  more  than  a  thousand  German  square  miles  of  ter- 
ritory, and  nearly  three  millions  of  subjects.  The  following 
year  (Aug.  6, 1806,)  he  voluntarily  laid  aside  the  Imperial  crown 
of  Germany,  adopting  instead,  the  hereditary  Imperial  crown  of 
Austria,  with  the  name  of  Francis  I.  Besides  Saltsburg  and 
Berchtolsgaden,  the  ci-devant  Grand  Duke  of  Tuscany  lost  also 
Passau  and  Eichstett ;  but  he  obtained  the  principality  of  Wurtz- 
burg. The  Archduke  Ferdinand  was  deprived  of  Brisgau  and 
Ortenau. 

At  the  commencement  of  the  year  1807,  Austria  had  made 
warlike  preparations  which  indicated  that,  but  for  the  precipi- 
tancy with  which  the  peace  of  Tilsit  had  been  concluded,  she 
would  have  made  a  powerful  diversion  on  the  rear  of  the  French 
army.  It  was  not  till  the  convention  of  Fontainbleau  that  she 
obtained  the  restitution  of  Braunau,  which  had  remained  in  the 
possession  of  the  French,  and  which  she  purchased  by  new  ter- 


FERTOD  IX,      A.  D.  1802 — 1810.  245 

ntorial  losses  on  the  side  of  Italy  ;  from  that  moment  the  Arch- 
duke Charles  made  great  exertions  for  re-organizing  the  army, 
introducing  a  new  order  and  a  better  discipline,  forming  bodies 
of  militia,  and  repairing  fortresses.  He  continued  to  inspire  the 
nation  with  an  enthusiasm  which  it  had  never  before  displayed. 
Many  wealthy  individuals  made  large  pecuniary  sacrifices  for 
the  service  of  their  country. 

The  peace  of  Schoenbrunn,  v/hich  terminated  the  war  of  1809, 
brought  Austria  down  to  the  rank  of  the  third  Continental 
power.  That  mon-archy  comprehended  a  surface  of  9471  Ger- 
man square  miles,  and  a  population  of  twenty-one  millions  ;  but 
her  commerce  was  annihilated  by  the  loss  of  Trieste  and  Fiume, 
which  separated  her  from  the  sea.  The  immense  quantity  of 
paper  money  in  the  ceded  provinces,  flowed  back  into  the  interior 
of  the  kingdom,  and  reduced  the  currency  of  these  bills  to  one- 
iifth  of  their  nominal  value. 

Prussia,  b}"  the  Resolutions  of  the  Deputation  of  1803,  gained 
426,000  subjects,  and  more  than  four  millions  of  francs  to  her 
revenue  ;  and  the  provinces  which  she  acquired,  established,  to 
a  certain  extent,  the  continuity  of  her  Westphalian  possessions 
with  the  centre  of  the  kingdom.  A  convention  with  the  Elector 
of  Bavaria  respecting  an  exchange  of  territory,  made  consider- 
able additions  to  tlie  Principalities  in  Franconia.  The  King, 
from  that  time,  occupied  himself  in  applying  the  remedy  of  a 
wise  administration  to  repair  the  calamities  which  wars  and 
lovies  had  inflicted  on  the  country.  In  vain  had  they  tried  every 
means  of  persuasion  to  make  him  join  the  third  coalition  ;  and 
it  was  only  the  violation  of  his  territory  by  the  French  troops, 
that  at  last  prevailed  with  him  to  take  that  step.  We  have  al- 
ready spoken  of  the  convention  at  Potsdam,  by  which  he  engage 
ed  eventually  to  become  a  party  to  that  confederacy,  and  of  the 
attempt  which  he  made  to  restore  peace  by  means  of  negotiation. 
We  have  already  mentioned  how  he  became  involuntarily,  and 
by  the  turn  which  his  minister  gave  to  the  affair  with  which  he 
was  intrusted,  the  ally  of  him  whom  he  wished  to  engage  in 
war.  Prussia  obtained,  by  the  treaty  of  Vienna,  the  precarious 
possession  of  the  Electorate  of  Hanover,  in  lieu  of  which  she 
ceded  Anspach,  Cleves,  and  Neufchatel  The  superficial  extent 
of  the  whole  monarchy  amounted  then  to  5746  German  square 
miles,  v/ith  a  population  of  10,658,000  souls. 

The  occupation  of  Hanover  dragged  Prussia  into  a  war  with 
England ;  and  the  course  pursued  towards  her  by  Bonaparte 
soon  compelled  her  to  declare  war  against  France.  He  had 
offered  the  Electorate  of  Hanover  to  the  King  of  England,  t^ni 
opposed  Prussia  in  the  project  of  associating  Saxony,  He-f^, 

VOL.  II.  -^J 


246  CHAPTER  XI. 

and  the  Hanseatic  towns,  in  the  confederation  which  Frederic 
wished  to  oppose  to  that  of  the  Rhine.  The  convention  of  Vienna 
thus  became  the  occasion  of  inflicting  new  calamities  on  Prussia, 
Frederic  William  renounced  the  territory  of  Hanover,  by  the 
peace  which  he  concluded  with  George  III.  at  Memel  (Jan.  28, 
1807  ;)  but  the  treaty  of  Tilsit  cost  the  former  the  half  of  his 
German  estates,  viz.  an  extent  of  2657  Gennan  square  miles, 
and  a  population  of  4,670,000  souls.  This  sacrifice  was  not 
sufficient  to  appease  the  resentment  of  Bonaparte.  By  misin- 
terpreting the  equivocal  terms  of  the  convention  of  Koningsberg, 
he  restored  to  the  King  only  a  part  of  his  provinces  on  the  east 
of  the  Vistula,  which  were  desolated  by  the  war,  and  reduced 
almost  to  a  desert.  After  sixteen  months  of  peace,  he  could  not 
obtain  repossession  of  his  other  provinces,  until  he  engaged  la 
pay  120,000,000  of  francs,  to  leave  three  fortresses  in  the  hands 
of  Bonaparte  by  way  of  pledge,  and  to  promise  never  to  keep 
more  than  40,000  men  in  the  field. 

Prussia  was  in  a  state  of  the  greatest  destitution,  at  the  time 
when  Frederic  William  turned  his  attention  to  the  administra- 
tion of  the  country.  The  army  had  devoured  the  substance  of 
the  inhabitants  ;  the  population  had  suffered  a  great  diminution  : 
while  sickness  and  a  complication  of  miseries,  were  continually 
cutting  them  off  in  considerable  numbers.  The  King  submitted 
to  many  privations,  to  fulfil  the  obligations  he  had  contracted 
towards  France,  and  thereby  to  obtain  the  final  evacuation  of  the 
kingdom,  as  well  as  to  relieve  those  provinces  which  had  suf- 
fered more  severely  than  others  by  the  sojourn  of  the  French 
army.  He  did  every  thing  in  his  power  to  revive  agriculture 
and  industry  among  his  subjects,  and  restore  the  resources  of 
the  army ;  and  thus  prepare  the  way  for  recovering  the  rank 
which  the  Prussian  monarchy  had  formerly  held. 

Independently  of  the  hardships  which  Bonaparte  inflicted  on 
Prussia,  by  protracting  the  stay  of  his  army,  and  by  the  contri- 
butions which  he  imposed  on  her,  this  country  was  made  the  vic- 
tim of  a  rapacity  which  is,  perhaps,  unprecedented  in  history. 
By  a  convention  which  the  King  of  Saxony,  as  Duke  of  War- 
saw, concluded  with  Bonaparte  (May  10,  1808,)  while  occupied 
at  Bayonne  in  overturning  the  Spanish  monarchy,  the  latter 
ceded  to  him,  for  a  sum  of  twenty  millions  of  francs,  not  only 
the  pecuniary  claims  of  the  King  of  Prussia  over  his  Polish 
subjects,  (for  these  he  had  abandoned  by  the  peace  of  Tilsit,) 
but  also  those  of  certain  public  establishments  in  Prussia,  such 
as  the  Bank,  the  Society  for  Maritime  Commerce,  the  Endow- 
ment for  Widows,  Hospitals,  Pious  Foundations,  Universities 
and  Schools ;  and  what  may  seem  incredible,  those  of  private 


PERIOD  IX.     A.  D.  1802—1810.  247 

individuals  in  Prussia  over  Polish  subjects.  The  pecuniary 
claims  were  so  much  the  more  considerable,  as  the  capitalists  of 
the  ancient  provinces,  since  the  introduction  of  the  system  of 
mortgage  into  Prussia,  had  advanced  large  sums  to  Polish  pro- 
prietors for  the  improvement  of  their  patrimonies.  The  sums 
thus  taken  from  those  who  had  furnished  them,  and  transferred 
to  the  King  of  Saxony,  were  estimated  at  first  at  forty-three 
millions  and  a  half  of  francs,  and  four  millions  of  interest ;  but 
the  financial  authorities  of  the  dutchy  of  Warsaw,  discovered 
that  they  amounted  to  sixty-eight  millions.  In  vain  did  Fre- 
deric William  ofl^er  to  repurchase  this  pretended  right  of  the 
King  of  Saxony,  by  reimbursing  the  twenty  millions  of  francs 
which  the  latter  had  been  obliged,  it  w^as  said,  to  give  to  Bona- 
parte. The  Revolution  of  1814  rectified  this  piece  of  injustice, 
as  it  did  many  others. 

During  this  period  the  north  of  Europe  was  agitated  by  three 
^different  wars,  that  of  England  against  Denmark,  which  occa- 
sioned a  rupture  between  the  Cabinets  of  St.  Petersburg  and 
London ;  that  of  Russia  against  Sweden,  in  which  Denmark 
was  involved  ;  and  lastly,  the  war  between  Russia  and  the 
Porte,  in  which  England  took  an  active  part. 

The  expedition  of  the  English  against  the  Isle  of  Zealand  in 
1S07,  was  an  event  which  was  censured  at  the  time  with  great 
severity  ;  and  which  cannot  be  justified,  since  it  is  the  nature 
of  all  preventive  war  to  destroy  the  very  arguments  and  evi- 
dences of  its  necessity.  Nevertheless,  if  on  the  one  hand,  we 
consider  what  was  requisite  to  support  the  interests  of  Bona- 
parte after  the  peace  of  Tilsit,  or  more  properly  speaking,  to 
carry  into  execution  the  system  he  had  organized  ;  and  if  on 
ihe  other,  we  examine  into  his  conduct  a  short  time  after,  to- 
wards Spain  and  Portugal,  we  shall  find  England  not  wholly 
without  excuse.  The  peace  of  Tilsit  had  excluded  British  com- 
merce from  all  the  southern  ports  of  the  Baltic,  and  she  na- 
turally Avished  that  Sweden,  and  especially  Denmark,  who  had 
a  communication  with  the  Continent  by  way  of  Jutland,  should 
open  their  ports  to  her.  Several  appearances  indicated  that  it 
was  the  intention  of  Bonaparte  to  seize  Denmark  also  after  the 
peace  of  Tilsit ;  and  the  British  minister  declared  that  he  was 
in  possession  of  proofs  of  a  plan  to  that  effect. 

The  British  Government  accordingly  fitted  out  an  expedition 
for  the  purpose  of  preventing  his  designs,  with  an  activity  and 
a  celerity  such  as  they  had  never  displayed  in  sending  aid  to 
their  allies;  and  that  diflference  in  their  conduct  tended  not  a 
little  to  create  an  unfavourable  opinion  as  to  the  enterprise 
vhich  they  undertook  against  Denmark  in  1807.     An  English 


248  CHAPTER  XI. 

fleet,  having  an  army  on  board,  to  which  a  Hanoverian  legion 
of  7000  men  then  in  the  Isle  of  Rugen,  was  afterwards  added, 
sailed  from  England  about  the  endof  July  or  beginning  of  August. 
It  was  divided  into  two  squadrons,  one  of  which,  under  Commo- 
dore Keats,  took  up  their  station  in  the  Great  Belt,  which  till  then 
had  been  thought  inaccessible  to  ships  of  war,  and  thus  cut  oft 
the  Isle  of  Zealand  from  the  main  land,  where  the  Prince  Royal 
with  the  Danish  army  then  was.  The  second  division,  under 
the  command  of  Admiral  Gambler,  with  troops  on  board  com- 
manded by  Lord  Cathcart,  arrived  oft'  Copenhagen.  Mr.  Jack- 
son was  sent  to  Kiel  to  demand  from  the  Prince  Royal  the 
surrender  of  the  Danish  fleet,  which  they  alleged  it  was  the  in- 
tention of  Bonaparte  to  seize. 

After  a  fruitless  negotiation,  Copenhagen,  after  being  invested 
by  the  army  of  Lord  Cathcart  on  the  land  side,  was  bombarded 
for  three  days  (Sept.  2,  3,  4,)  and  a  great  part  of  the  city  de- 
stroyed. At  length  General  Peymann,  the  Commander-in-chief 
of  the  Danish  forces,  demanded  an  armistice  to  treat  for  a  ca- 
pitulation. Sir  Arthur  Wellesley,  the  same  officer  who  soon 
after  so  distinguished  himself  in  Portugal,  signed  that  capitula- 
tion on  the  part  of  Great  Britain.  The  citadel  was  given  up 
to  the  English.  The  Danes  surrendered  their  fleet,  with  all 
the  naval  stores  in  their  arsenals  and  dock-yards.  The  Eng- 
lish stipulated  for  a  delay  of  six  weeks  to  prepare  for  departure, 
after  which  they  promised  to  surrender  the  citadel,  and  evacuate 
the  Isle  of  Zealand. 

In  this  manner  the  Danish  marine,  consisting  of  eighteen 
ships  of  the  line,  fifteen  frigates,  six  brigs,  and  twenty-five  sloops 
of  war,  fell  into  the  hands  of  the  English.  During  the  six 
weeks  stipulated  for,  the  Court  of  London  offered  Denmark  the 
alternative  either  of  returning  to  a  state  of  neutrality,  or  of  form- 
ing an  alliance  with  England.  The  Prince  Regent  having  re- 
fused both  of  these,  England  declared  war  against  him  (Nov. 
4  ;)  but  she  did  not  violate  the  capitulation  of  Copenhagen,  as 
the  evacuation  of  that  city  and  the  island  of  Zealand  took  place 
at  the  term  specified.  This  event  added  Denmark  to  the  French 
system.  Her  minister  concluded  a  treaty  of  alliance  at  Fon- 
tainbleau,  the  tenor  of  which  has  not  been  made  public  ;  but  if 
we  may  judge  by  the  events  which  followed,  it  was  agreed  that 
the  Danish  islands  should  be  occupied  by  French  troops  des- 
tined to  act  against  Sweden.  In  the  month  of  March  1808, 
32,000  French,  Dutch,  and  Spanish  troops  (the  last  brought 
from  the  kingdom  of  Etruria,)  under  the  command  of  Marshal 
Bernadotte,  arrived  in  Zealand,  Funen,  and  the  other  islands  of 
the   Baltic ;  but  the  defection  of  the   Spanish  troops,  and  the 


i-ERioD  IX.     A.  D.  1802—1810.  249 

war  ^vith  Austria,  prevented  the  projected  invasion  of  Sweden 
The  English  took  possession  of  the  colonies  of  L/eiamark,  and 
ru.ned  the  commerce  of  her  subjects.  Frederic  VI.,  who  had 
succeeded  his  father  Chustian  VII, ,  (March  13,  1808,)  after 
having  been  at  the  head  of  the  government  as  regent  since  1784, 
strictly  executed  the  Continental  system  ;  especially  after  the 
commencement  of  the  year  1810,  when  the  two  Counts  Bern- 
storff  had  retired  from  the  ministry.  He  even  went  so  far  as  to 
arrest  all  the  English  subjects   found  in  Denmark. 

The  expedition  of  the  English  against  Copenhagen,  induced 
the  Emperor  Alexander  to  declare  war  against  them  (Nov.  7.) 
That  monarch  entered  decidedly  into  the  Continental  system, 
and  demanded  of  the  King  of  Sweden,  that  agreeably  to  the 
conventions  as  to  the  armed  neutrality  of  the  North,  he  should 
enforce  the  principle  by  which  the  Baltic  was  declared  a  shut 
sea.  The  King  of  Sweden  replied,  that  the  principles  establish- 
ed by  the  conventions  of  1780  and  1800  had  been  abandoned  by 
that  of  June  17,  1801 ;  that  circumstances  were  entirely  changed 
since  Denmark,  on  whose  co-operations  he  had  formerly  reck- 
oned, had  lost  her  fleet ;  and  since,  independently  of  the  Sound, 
the  English  had  effected  another  entrance  into  the  Baltic,  through 
the  Great  Belt ;  these  objections,  however,  did  not  prevent  him 
from  mcurring  a  ruinous  war. 

A  Russian  army  entered  Finland  (Feb.  21,  1808.)  General 
Baxhowden,  who  had  the  command,  announced  to  the  inhabi- 
tants of  that  province  that  the  Emperor  Alexander  had  thought 
it  necessary  to  occupy  that  country,  in  order  to  have  a  pledge 
that  the  King  of  Sweden  would  accept  the  proposals  of  peace 
whfch  France  had  made  to  him.  Although  the  Swedish  troops 
in  Finland  were  but  few  in  number,  and  defended  it  bravely, 
they  were  compelled  to  yield  to  the  superior  force  of  the  Rus- 
sians, and  to  retire  into  East  Bothnia.  Sueaborg,  the  bulwark 
of  Finland,  and  deemed  impregnable,  surrendered  (April  6,) 
after  a  siege  of  a  few  days  by  Vice-Admiral  Kronstadt.  A  mani- 
festo of  the  Emperor  Alexander  (March  28,)  had  already  decla- 
red the  grand  dutchy  of  Finland  to  be  incorporated  with  his  Em- 
pire. This  unexpected  attack  excited  the  most  lively  indignation 
in  Gustavus  IV.,  who  so  far  forgot  himself,  as  to  cause  M.  d'Alo- 
peus,  the  Russian  minister  at  his  court,  to  be  arrested.  Den- 
mark having  also  declared  war  against  him  (Feb.  29,)  a  Swedish 
army  of  20,000  men,  under  the  command  of  Gen.  Arm  field,  un- 
dertook the  conquest  of  Norway.  But  this  expedition  was  repuls- 
ed with  loss  ;  and  the  Danes  even  made  incursions  into  Sweden. 

Field-Marshal  Count  Klinspor  being  placed  at  the  head  of  the 
Sv/edish  army,  then  at  Uleaburg.  began  to  act  on  the  offensive 


250  CHAPTER  XI. 

in  the  north  of  Finland  ;  while  a  second  army,  under  the  com 
mand  of  General  Vegesack,  disembarked  at  Abo  (June  S.  The 
war  was  carried  on  with  variable  success,  but  with  equal  bra- 
very on  both  sides.  At  the  end  of  the  campaign,  the  Russians 
were  again  masters  of  Finland.  A  body  of  10,000  English 
troops,  commanded  by  the  same  General  Moore  who,  a  few 
months  after,  fell  at  Corunna  in  Spain,  had  arrived  in  the  roads 
at  Gottenburg  (May  17  ;)  but  as  the  Swedish  King  could  not 
come  to  an  agreement  as  to  the  employment  of  these  auxiliaries, 
nor  even  as  to  the  command,  he  refused  to  permit  the  troops  to 
disembark.  He  even  ordered  General  Moore,  who  had  repaired 
to  Stockholm,  to  be  arrested.  But  having  soon  found  means  to 
escape,  Moore  returned  to  England  with  his  troops.  Mr.  Thom- 
son, the  British  envoy,  who  had  remonstrated  against  this  arbi- 
trary conduct  of  the  King,  was  recalled. 

Admiral  Chanikoff,  with  a  Russian  fleet  of  twenty-four  ships 
of  war,  made  an  attempt  to  burn  the  Swedish  fleet,  commanded 
by  Admiral  Nauckhoff,  in  Virgin  Bay  (Aug.  18 ;)  but  the  ar- 
rival of  an  English  fleet  under  Sir  James  Saumarez  in  Baltic 
Port  where  Nauckhofl' was,  with  a  reinforcement  of  some  Eng- 
dsh  ships  under  the  command  of  Admiral  Hood,  kept  them  in 
olockade  for  nearly  two  months.  In  Finland  an  armistice  had 
been  concluded,  (Sept.  ISOS,)  on  the  footing  of  the  Uti  Posside- 
tis; but  the  Emperor  Alexander  refused  to  ratify  it.  Another 
was  then  concluded  at  Olkioki  (Nov.  19,)  by  which  the  Swedish 
army  engaged  to  evacuate  Uleaburg,  and  to  retire  behind  the 
Kemi.  Towards  the  end  of  the  year,  the  English  Cabinet  ad- 
vised the  King  of  Sweden  to  make  peace,  which  he  obstinately 
refused,  and  even  demanded  additional  supplies  to  continue  the 
war  with  vigoui  The  British  Cabinet  having  declined  to  grant 
them  unconditionally,  Gustavus  was  on  the  point  of  coming  to 
an  open  rupture  with  that  Court.  But  his  indignation  having 
abated,  he  agreed,  soon  after,  to  conclude  a  new  convention  at 
Stockholm  (March  1,  1809,)  when  Great  Britain  engaged  to  pay 
in  advance  300,000Z.  sterling  by  quarterly  instalments. 

Meantime  a  revolution  was  fermenting  in  Sweden,  which  was 
to  change  the  aspect  of  affairs.  The  haughtiness  and  obstinacy 
of  the  King,  had  created  him  many  enemies.  The  people  were 
oppressed  in  a  most  extraordinary  manner  by  burdens  and  im- 
posts, which  Gustavus  increased  arbitrarily,  and  without  regard 
to  constitutional  forms.  The  severity  with  which  he  punished 
the  troops,  not  only  when  they  had  committed  faults,  but  even 
when  they  vv^ere  unsuccessful,  had  alienated  the  minds  of  the 
soldiers  from  him,  and  especially  the  guards.  A  conspiracy 
was  formed,  at  the  head  of  which  was  Lieutenant-Colonel  Adler- 


PERIOD  IX.     A.  D.  1802—1810.  251 

sparre,  and  Colonel  Skioldebrand,  and  which  was  joined  by  the 
army  of  the  West,  or  of  Norway,  and  the  troops  that  were  sta- 
tioned in  the  Islands  of  Aland.  Adlersparre  and  the  army  of 
the  West  marched  on  Stockholm.  They  had  arrived  at  Orebro, 
v/hen  Field-Marshal  Klinspor,  who  had  been  disgraced,  advised 
the  King  to  avert  the  storm  by  changing  his  conduct.  On  his 
refusal,  General  Adlercreutz  arrested  him  in  the  name  of  the 
people  (March  13.)  The  Duke  of  Sudermania,  the  King's  un- 
cle, was  proclaimed  Regent.  Gustavus  was  conveyed  to  Drott- 
ningholm,  and  thence  to  Gripsholm,  where  he  signed  a  deed  of 
abdication,  which  he  afterwards  declared  on  various  occasions  to 
have  been  voluntary.  The  revolution  was  terminated  without 
commotion  and  without  bloodshed. 

The  Regent  immediately  assembled  the  Diet  at  Stockholm. 
Not  content  with  accepting  the  abdication  of  Gustavus,  such  as 
he  had  given  it,  they  excluded  all  his  descendants  from  the 
throne  of  Sweden.  They  offered  the  crown  to  the  Regent,  who 
declared  his  willingness  to  accept  it  when  they  had  revised  the 
constitution.  This  revision,  by  which  the  royal  authority  was 
limited  without  reducing  it  to  a  state  of  humiliation  and  depen- 
dence, having  been  adopted  by  the  Diet,  the  Duke  of  Suderma- 
nia was  proclaimed  King  (June  5,  1809,)  under  the  title  of 
Charles  XIII.  according  to  the  common  but  erroneous  method 
of  reckoning  the  Kings  of  Sweden.  As  the  new  monarch  had 
no  family,  they  elected  as  his  successor  to  the  throne.  Prince 
Christian  Augustus  of  Holstein-Augustenburg,  who  commanded 
the  Danish  army  in  Norway,  and  who  had  procured  the  esteem 
even  of  his  enemies.  Gustavus  and  his  family  were  permitted 
to  leave  the  kingdom  ;  and  towards  the  end  of  the  year  a  new 
fundamental  law  was  published,  regulating  the  order  of  succes- 
sion to  the  throne. 

At  Stockholm  the  people  flattered  themselves  that  the  de- 
thronement of  Gustavus  would  speedily  bring  peace  to  Sweden  ; 
bnt  it  was  not  so.  Alexander  I.  refused  to  treat  with  a  govern- 
ment so  insecure  as  a  regency,  and  hostilities  accordingly  con- 
tinued. General  Knorring  who  had  passed  the  Gulf  of  Bothnia 
on  the  ice  with  25,000  Russians,  took  possession  of  the  Islands 
of  Aland  (March  17,)  when  the  Swedish  troops  stationed  there 
retired  to  the  continent  of  Sweden.  Knorring  granted  the 
Swedes  a  cessation  of  hostilities,  to  allow  them  time  to  make 
overtures  of  peace.  Apprized  of  this  arrangement,  Count  Bar- 
clay de  Tolly,  who  had  crossed  the  Gulf  with  another  body  of 
Russians  on  the  side  of  Vasa,  and  taken  possession  of  Umea, 
evacuated  West  Bothnia,  and  returned  to  Finland.  A  third 
body  of  Russians,  under  the  command  of  Schouvaloff,  penetrated 


352  CHAPTER  11' 

nito  West  Bothnia  by  the  route  of  Tornea.  and  compelled  the 
Swedish  army  of  the  North,  which  was  commanded  by  Gripen- 
berg,  to  lay  down  their  arms  at  Seiwis  (Wlarch  25.)  This  san- 
guinary affair  occurred  entirely  through  ignorance  ;  because  in 
that  country,  lying  under  the  66th  degree  of  north  latitude,  they 
were  not  aw^are  of  the  armistice  granted  by  Knorring.  On  the 
expiration  of  the  truce,  hostilities  recommenced  in  the  month  of 
May,  and  the  Russians  took  possession  of  the  part  of  West 
Bothnia  lying  to  the  north  of  Umea. 

The  peace  between  Russia  and  Sweden  w^as  signed  at  Fre- 
dericsham  (Sept.  17.)  The  latter  power  adhered  to  the  Con- 
tinental system,  reserving  to  herself  the  importation  of  salt  and 
such  colonial  produce  as  she  could  not  do  without.  She  sur- 
rendered Finland  with  the  w^hole  of  East  Bothnia,  and  a  part  of 
West  Bothnia  lying  to  the  eastward  of  the  river  Tornea.  The 
cession  of  these  provinces  which  formed  the  granary  of  Sweden, 
and  contained  a  population  of  900,000  souls,  was  an  irreparable 
loss  to  that  kingdom,  which  had  only  2,344,000  inhabitants  left. 
The  peace  of  Fredericsham  was  speedily  followed  by  that  of 
Jonkoping  with  Denmark  (Dec.  10,)  and  that  at  Paris  wdth  France 
(Jan.  6,  1810.)  By  the  first,  every  thing  was  re-established  on 
us  ancient  footing  between  these  two  States.  But  by  the  peace 
of  Paris,  Sweden  renounced  the  importation  of  colonial  produce, 
and  only  reserved  the  privilege  of  importing  salt  as  an  article 
of  absolute  necessity.  It  was  on  this  condition  alone  that  she 
could  obtain  repossession  of  Pomerania. 

The  Prince  Royal  of  Sweden  having  died  suddenly,  a  Diet 
assembled  at  Orebro,  and  elected  John  Baptiste  Julius  Berna- 
dotte.  Prince  of  Ponte  Corvo,  his  successor  to  the  throne  (May 
28.)  The  election  was  unanimous  ;  but  out  of  more  than  one 
thousand  of  the  nobility  who  had  a  right  to  appear  at  the  Diet, 
only  one  hundred  and  forty  were  present.  Bernadotte  accepted 
an  offer  so  honourable.  On  his  arrival  at  Elsiiiore,  he  professed, 
as  his  ancestors  had  done  before  him  in  France,  his  adherence 
to  the  Confession  of  Augsburg,  which  was  then  the  established 
religion  in  Sweden.  King  Charles  XIII.  having  adopted  him 
as  his  son,  he  was  proclaimed  at  Stockholm  (Nov.  5,)  eventual 
successor  to  the  throne,  under  the  name  of  Charles  John. 
Twelve  days  afterwards,  Sweden  declared  war  against  Great 
Britain. 

In  Russia,  the  Emperor  Alexander,  since  his  accession  to  the 
throne,  had  occupied  himself  incessantly  in  improving  every 
oranch  of  the  administration.  The  restrictive  regulations  which 
had  been  published  under  the  last  reign  were  abrogated;  by 
gradual  eoncessions,  the  peasantry  were  prepared  for  a  liberty 


PERIOD  IX.     A.  D.  1802—1810.  253 

which  they  had  not  yet  enjoyed.  The  number  of  universities, 
and  what  is  still  more  essential  to  civilization,  the  number  of 
schools  was  augmented.  The  senate,  the  ministry,  and  the 
civil  authorities  were  reorganized,  and  new  improvements 
adopted,  tending  to  abolish  arbitrary  power,  to  accelerate  the 
despatch  of  business,  and  to  promote  the  distribution  of  fair 
and  impartial  justice  to  all  classes  of  society.  Canals  were 
dug,  new  avenues  were  opened  for  industry,  and  commerce 
flourished,  especially  the  trade  of  the  Black  Sea.  The  only 
point  in  which  the  Government  failed,  was  in  its  attempts  to  re- 
store the  finances  ;  but  the  four  wars  of  the  preceding  seven 
years  in  which  Russia  had  been  engaged,  rendered  these  at- 
tempts unavailing. 

We  have  already  related  the  origin,  events,  and  termination 
of  two  of  these  wars,  viz.  that  of  1806,  w^hich  ended  with  the 
peace  of  Tilsit,  and  procured  Russia  the  province  of  Bialystock  ; 
and  that  of  Sweden,  which  annexed  the  province  of  Finland  to 
that  Empire.  The  war  against  England  continued  after  the 
peace  of  Fredericsham,  but  without  furnishing  any  events  of 
great  importance.  The  two  other  wars  were  those  against  Per- 
sia and  the  Porte.  At  the  begii  ning  of  his  reign,  Alexander 
had  annexed  Georgia  to  his  Empire,  which  had  till  then  been 
the  prey  of  continual  disturbances.  This  accession  drew  him 
into  a  war  with  Persia,  which  did  not  terminate  till  1813.  The 
principal  events  of  that  war  were  the  defeat  of  the  Persians  at 
Elschmiazin,  by  Prince  ZizianofT  (June  20,  1804;)  the  conquest 
of  the  province  of  Shirvan  by  the  same  Prince  (Jan.  1806  ;) 
the  taking  of  Derbent  by  the  Russians  (July  3  ;)  and  the  defeat 
of  the  Persians  by  Paulucci,  at  Alkolwalaki,  (Sept.  1,  1810.) 

Before  speaking  of  the  war  between  Russia  and  the  Porte,  it 
will  be  necessary  to  take  a  brief  retrospect  of  the  Ottoman  Em- 
pire. The  condition  of  that  Empire,  badly  organized  and  worse 
governed,  was  such,  that  every  thing  then  presaged  its  ap- 
proaching dissolution  ;  or  in  other  words,  the  expulsion  of  the 
Turks  from  Europe.  Every  where  the  authority  of  the  Grand 
Seignor  was  disregarded.  Paswan  Oglou,  the  Pacha  of  Wid- 
din,  was  in  open  revolt.  Ali  Pacha  of  Janina  was  obedient 
only  when  it  suited  his  convenience.  The  Servians  had  taken 
up  arms  under  their  leader  Czerni  George,  and  threatened  to 
possess  themselves  of  Sabacz  and  Belgrade.  Djezzar,  the 
Pacha  of  Syria,  without  declaring  himself  an  enemy  to  the 
Porte,  enjoyed  an  absolute  independence.  The  sect  of  the  Wa- 
habites  was  in  possession  of  Arabia.  Egypt  was  distracted  by 
civil  wars.  Sehm  III.,  who  had  reigned  there  since  1789,  con- 
vinced that  the  Porte  could  never  re-establish  its  authority  ey- 

voL.  II.  22 


254  CHAPTER  XI. 

cept  by  better  organizing  the  army,  had  endeavoured  to  model 
it  on  the  European  system.  This  attempt  afterwards  cost  him 
his  throne. 

Such  was  the  situation  of  the  Ottoman  Empire,  when  Bona 
parte,  in  order  to  prevent  Alexander  from  sending  supplies  to 
Prussia,  resolved  to  embroil  him  in  a  quarrel  with  the  Porte. 
General  Sebastiani,  the  French  Envoy  at  Constantinople,  con- 
trived to  obtain  so  great  an  infinence  over  the  minds  of  the 
Divan,  that  for  some  time  it  was  entirely  under  his  direction. 
Subjects  of  dissension  were  not  wanting  between  Russia  and 
the  Porte  ;  and  these  were  of  such  a  nature,  as  to  furnish  each 
party  with  plausible  reasons  for  complaining  of  the  infraction  oi 
treaties.  The  French  minister  was  not  slow  to  fan  the  spark  of 
discord.  He  even  induced  the  Divan  to  refuse  to  renew  their 
treaty  of  alliance  with  England,  which  was  then  on  the  point  of 
expiring.  The  Emperor  Alexander,  foreseeing  that  there  would 
be  no  redress  to  his  complaints,  gave  orders  to  General  Michel- 
son  to  enter  Moldavia  and  Wallachia.  The  Porte  then  declared 
war  against  Russia  (Dec.  30;)  but  deviating  for  the  first  time 
from  a  barbarous  custom,  he  allowed  M.  d'ltalinski,  the  Russian 
minister,  to  depart  unmolested. 

A  few  days  after,  Mr.  Arbuthnot,  the  English  minister,  quit- 
ted Constantinople,  after  having  repeatedly  demanded  the  re- 
newal of  the  alliance,  and  the  expulsion  of  M.  Sebastiani. 
Within  a  few  weeks  an  English  fleet  of  nine  ships  of  the  line, 
three  frigates,  and  several  fire-ships,  commanded  by  Vice-Admi- 
ral  Duckworth,  forced  the  passage  of  the  Dardanelles,  and  ap- 
peared before  Constantinople.  Duckworth  demanded  of  the 
Divan,  that  the  forts  of  the  Dardanelles  and  the  Turkish  fleet 
should  be  surrendered  to  him  ;  that  the  Porte  should  cede  Mol- 
davia and  Wallachia  to  Russia,  and  break  off  alliance  with  Bo- 
naparte. But  instead  of  profiting  by  the  sudden  panic  which 
his  appearance  had  created,  he  allowed  the  Turks  time  to  put 
themselves  in  a  posture  of  defence.  Encouraged  and  instructed 
by  Sebastiani,  they  made  their  preparations  with  such  energy 
and  success,  that  in  the  course  of  eight  days  the  English  Vice- 
admiral  found  that  he  could  do  nothing  better  than  weigh  an- 
chor and  repass  the  Dardanelles.  On  his  arrival  at  Malta,  he 
took  on  board  5000  troops,  under  the  command  of  General  Era- 
ser, and  conveyed  them  to  Egypt.  The  English  took  posses- 
sion of  Alexandria  (Mar.  20;)  but  in  the  course  of  six  months, 
they  found  themselves  obliged  to  surrender  that  city  by  capitu- 
lation to  the  Governor  of  Egypt. 

The  campaign  of  1807  was  not  productive  of  any  very  deci- 
sive result,  as  General  Michelson  had  received  orders  to  detach 


PERIOD  IX.     A.  D.  1802—1810.  255 

80,000  men  to  oppose  the  French  in  Poland.  Czerni  George, 
the  leader  of  the  revolted  Servians,  took  Belgrade,  Sabacz,  and 
Nissa,  penetrated  into  Bulgaria,  where  he  was  reinforced  by  some 
Russian  troops,  and  gained  divers  signal  advantages.  General 
Michelson  himself  v/as  victorious  near  Guirdesov  (March  17,) 
without,  however,  being  able  to  get  possession  of  that  place.  The 
war  was  conducted  with  more  success  on  the  frontiers  of  the  two 
Empires  in  Asia.  The  Seraskier  of  Erzerum  was  entirely  de- 
feated by  General  Gudovitch  (June  18;)  and  that  victory  was 
an  event  so  much  the  more  fortunate,  as  it  prevented  the  Persians 
from  making  a  bold  diversion  in  favour  of  the  Turks.  The  most 
important  event  in  the  campaign  was  the  naval  battle  of  Lemnos, 
where  the  Russian  fleet,  under  the  command  of  Vice-admiral 
Siniawin,  defeated  the  Capitan  Pacha,  who  had  sailed  from  the 
Dardanelles  after  the  retreat  of  Duckworth. 

When  the  Ottoman  navy  sustained  this  defeat,  Selim  III.  had 
ceased  to  reign.  That  prince  had  rendered  himself  odious  to 
the  troops,  by  the  introduction  of  the  European  discipline  and 
dress,  known  by  the  name  of  Nizami  gedid,  and  by  his  connexion 
with  the  French  Emperor.  One  circumstance,  regarded  as  a  fun- 
damental law,  and  according  to  which  a  Sultan  who  had  reigned 
seven  years  without  having  any  children  was  regarded  as  un- 
worthy of  the  thron-e,  served  as  a  pretext  for  the  military  to  have 
him  deposed.  Selim,  finding  it  impossible  to  quell  or  allay  the 
revolt,  abdicated  voluntarily  (May  29,)  and  placed  his  cousin, 
Mustapha  IV.,  on  the  throne.  In  the  amnesty  which  that  prince 
published,  he  recognised  the  right  of  the  Janissaries  to  withdraw 
their  allegiance  from  the  Grand  Seignor  who  should  depart  from 
the  established  customs,  and  that  of  appointing  his  successor. 

The  Emperor  Alexander  had  promised,  by  the  peace  of  Tilsit, 
to  evacuate  Moldavia  and  Wallachia,  on  condition,  however,  that 
the  Turks  should  not  occupy  these  two  provinces  till  after  the 
conclusion  of  a  definitive  peace.  The  French  General  Guille- 
minot  was  sent  to  the  Turkish  camp  to  negotiate  an  armistice 
on  these  terms,  which  in  efTect  was  signed  at  Slobozia  (Aug.  24.) 
The  evacuation  of  the  two  provinces  stipulated  by  that  arrange- 
ment never  took  place,  as  the  Emperor  of  Russia  refused  to  ratify 
the  treaty,  as  it  contained  certain  articles  w^hich  he  judged  in- 
compatible with  his  dignity  ;  so  that  matters  remained  on  their 
former  footing.  That  circumstance  was  one  of  the  pretexts 
which  Bonaparte  alleged  for  continuing  to  occupy  Prussia. 

In  the  midst  of  these  political  quibblings,  the  time  arrived 
when  a  new  system  of  things  took  place.  The  Cabinets  of  St. 
Petersburg  and  Paris  were  making  mutual  advances  ;  and  it  is 
probable  that  the  fate  of  the  Porte,  and  especially  of  tlie   pro- 


256  CHAPTER    XI. 

vinces  beyond  the  Danube,  was  one  of  the  subjects  which  were 
discussed  during  the  interview  at  Erfurt.  France  lost  her  inftu- 
ence  at  Constantinople,  when  they  saw  her  enter  into  an  alliance 
with  Russia ;  and  from  that  time  England  directed  the  politics 
of  the  Divan. 

Mustapha  IV.  had  in  the  mean  time  been  hurled  from  the 
throne.  Mustapha,  styled  Bairactar  or  the  Staiidardbearer, 
the  Pacha  of  Rudschuk,  a  man  of  extraordinary  courage,  and 
one  of  the  most  zealous  abettors  of  the  changes  introduced  by 
Selim,  which  he  regarded  as  the  sole  means  of  preserving  the 
State,  had  marched  with  35,000  men  to  Constantinople,  with 
the  view  of  reforming  or  seizing  the  government,  and  announced 
to  Mustapha  IV.  (July  28, 1808,)  that  he  must  resign,  and  make 
way  for  the  ancient  and  legitimate  Sultan.  Mustapha  thought 
to  save  his  crown  by  putting  Selim  to  death  ;  but  Bairactar 
proclaimed  Mahmoud,  the  younger  brother  of  Mustapha,  who 
was  then  shut  up  in  the  Seraglio.  Bairactar,  invested  with  abso- 
lute power,  re-established  the  corps  of  the  Seiinens,  or  disciplined 
troops  on  the  footing  of  the  Europeans,  and  took  vigorous  mea- 
sures for  putting  the  Empire  in  a  condition  to  resist  the  Russians. 
These  patriotic  efforts  cost  him  his  life.  After  the  departure  of 
a  part  of  the  Seimens  for  the  army,  the  Janissaries  and  the  in- 
habitants of  Constantinople  revolted.  At  the  head  of  a  body  of 
newly  organized  troops,  Mustapha  defended  himself  with  cou- 
rage ;  but  seeing  the  moment  approach  when  he  must  yield  to 
the  superior  number  of  his  assailants,  he  put  to  death  the  old 
Sultan  and  his  mother,  whose  intrigues  had  instigated  the  insur- 
rection. He  retired  to  a  fortress  or  strong  place,  where  he  had 
deposited  a  quantity  of  gunpowder.  The  Janissaries  having 
pursued  him  thither,  he  set  fire  to  the  magazine,  and  blew  him- 
self and  his  persecutors  into  the  air.  The  young  Sultan  Mahmoud 
had  the  courage  to  declare  that  he  would  retain  the  European 
discipline  and  dress ;  but  after  being  attacked  in  his  place,  and 
learning  that  the  city  was  filled  with  carnage  and  conflagration, 
he  yielded  to  necessity,  and  restored  the  privileges  of  the  Janis- 
saries. It  is  probable  they  would  not  have  spared  his  life,  but  for 
the  circumstance  that  he  was  the  last  scion  of  the  race  of  Osman. 

The  ministers  of  the  Divan,  whom  General  Sebastiani  had 
gained  over  to  the  interests  of  France,  finding  themselves  entirely 
discarded  by  the  last  revolution,  Mr.  Adair,  the  new  English 
minister  at  Constantinople,  concluded  a  treaty  of  peace  (Jan.  5, 
1809,)  by  which  the  Porte  confirmed  to  England  the  commercial 
advantages  which  the  treaty  of  1675  had  granted  them,  ^s  well 
as  the  navigation  of  the  Black  Sea,  which  Mr.  Sp<=ncei  Smith 
had  obtained  (August  3,  1799.) 


PERIOD  IX.     A.  D.  1802—1810.  257 

Immediately  after  the  return  of  the  Emperor  Alexander  from 
Erfurt,  an  order  was  given  to  open  negotiations  with  the  Turks. 
The  conference  took  place  at  Jassy  ;  but  it  was  immediately 
broken  off,  after  the  Russian  plenipotentiaries  had  demanded,  as 
preliminary  conditions,  the  cession  of  Moldavia  and  Wallachia, 
and  the  expulsion  of  the  British  minister  from  Constantinople. 
Hostilities  then  recommenced.  The  Russians  were  commanded 
by  Prince  Prosoroffski,  and  after  his  death,  by  Prince  Bagration. 
Having  passed  the  Danube,  they  took  possession  of  Ismael,  and 
fought  abloody battle  at  Tartaritza,near  Silistria  (Sept.  26,)  which 
compelled  them  to  raise  the  siege  of  that  place.  The  Grand 
Vizier,  without  taking  advantage  of  his  good  fortune,  retired  to 
winter-quarters. 

The  campaign  of  1810  was  more  decisive.  General  Kamen- 
skoi,  the  second  of  that  name,  had  taken  the  chief  command  of 
the  Russian  army ;  his  brother  of  the  same  name,  and  General 
Markoff,  opened  it  by  the  taking  of  Bazardjik  (June  4;)  the  cap- 
ture of  Silistria  (June  11,)  by  the  Commander-in-chief  and  Count 
Langeron,  opened  the  way  to  Shumla,  where  the  Grand  Vizier, 
Yussuff  Pacha,  occupied  a  strong  position  ;  while  General  Sa- 
banieff  defeated  a  body  of  Turkish  troops  near  Rasgard  (June 
14,)  the  remains  of  which  were  obliged  to  surrender.  The  Grand 
Vizier  then  demanded  an  armistice  for  negotiating  a  peace.  The 
reply  was,  that  it  would  be  concluded  immediately  on  his  recog- 
nising the  Danube  as  the  limit  of  the  two  Empires,  and  promising 
to  pay  a  sum  of  twenty  millions  of  piastres  ;  the  Russians  re- 
maining in  possession  of  Bessarabia  until  it  was  paid.  The 
Grand  Vizier,  at  the  instigation  of  the  British  minister,  rejected 
these  conditions.  Yussuff  Pacha  still  occupied  his  camp  near 
Shumla,  the  rear  of  which  was  protected  by  the  Hemus.  Ka- 
menskoi  the  elder,  attacked  him  in  his  entrenchments,  but  was 
repulsed  with  loss  (June  23  ;)  he  left  his  brother  at  Kargali  Dere 
(about  five  leagues  from  Shumla)  at  the  head  of  a  corps  of  ob- 
servation, while  he  attempted  himself  to  take  Rudschukby  main 
force,  but  was  again  repulsed.  The  younger  brother  then  found 
himself  obliged,  by  the  approach  of  a  superior  force,  to  abandon 
his  position  at  Kargali  Dere  (Aug.  15.)  Yussuff  being  deter- 
mined to  save  Rudschuk,  detached  Mouhtar  Pacha  with  a  body 
of  40,000  troops,  who  took  up  a  formidable  position  at  the  place 
where  the  Jantra  runs  into  the  Danube.  Kamenskoi  leaving  to 
Count  Langeron  the  care  of  the  siege  of  Rudschuk,  and  ordering 
Sass  to  invest  Guirdesov,  which  is  situated  on  the  other  side  of 
the  Danube  opposite  Rudschuk,  immediately  directed  his  march 
against  Mouhtar,  and  attacked  him  in  his  entrenchments  at 
Batine.     After  a  terrible  carnage,  the  Russians  took  possession 

VOL.  H,  22* 


258  CHAPTER  XII. 

of  the  Turkish  camp  by  main  force  (Sept.  7,)  tvhen  ^^ouhtar 
escaped  with  a  small  detachment.  Within  a  few  da}  s  after, 
Count  St.  Priest  took  Sczistov,  with  the  whole  Turkish  fleet. 
Rudschuk  and  Guirdesov  surrendered  on  the  same  day  (Sept. 
27,)  and  Nicopoli  and  Widdin  in  a  short  time  after ;  so  that  by 
the  end  of  the  campaign  the  Russians  were  masters  of  the  whole 
ri-ght  bank  of  the  Danube.  The  Grand  Vizier  had  co^itinued 
all  this  time  in  his  strong  camp  at  Shumla.  The  Servians,  as- 
sisted by  a  body  of  Russians,  had  taken  possession  of  the  last 
fortresses  in  their  country  which  the  Turks  had  still  maintained, 
such  as  Cladova,  Oreava,  and  Praova. 


CHAPTER  XII. 


PERIOD  IX. 

.  The  decline  and  downfall  of  the  Empire  of  Bonaparte. — a.  b 

1810—1815. 

The  power  of  Napoleon  had  now  attained  its  greatest  height. 
Tiie  birth  of  a  son,  an  event,  which  happened  March  20,  1811, 
might  have  given  stability  to  this  power,  had  he  known  how  to 
set  bounds  to  his  ambition.  The  heir  to  the  Imperial  throne 
received  the  title  of  King  of  Rome,  a  dignity  which  had  been 
decreed  in  anticipation. 

The  differences  that  had  arisen  between  Bonaparte  and  the 
Head  of  the  Church,  became  this  year  a  subject  of  public  dis- 
cussion. The  will  of  a  despot  whom  no  power  could  resist,  was 
made  to  recoil  more  than  once  before  the  inflexible  firmness  of 
an  old  man,  disarmed  and  in  captivity.  Ever  since  Bonaparte 
had  deprived  the  Church  of  her  patrimony,  and  had  been  laid 
under  the  ban  of  excommunication,  Pius  VII.,  faithful  to  his 
principles,  had  refused  confirmation  to  every  bishop  nominated 
by  a  man  who  was  excluded  from  the  Catholic  communion 
Bonaparte  thought  it  might  be  possible  to  dispense  with  the 
confirmation  of  the  Pope.  With  this  view,  he  assembled  a  na- 
tional council  at  Paris  (June  17,  1811,)  composed  of  French  and 
Italian  bishops,  and  in  Vv^hich  Cardinal  Fesch,  the  Archbishop 
of  Lyons,  presided.  He  soon  found,  however,  that  despotic  au- 
thority was  of  little  avail  against  religious  opinions.  The  pre- 
lates, on  whose  compliance  he  had  calculated  with  too  much 
confidence,  declared  that  the  Council  had  no  power  to  grant  that 


PERIOD  IX.     A.  D.  1810—1815.  259 

confirmation  which  was  refused  by  the  Pope ;  but  the  arrest  of 
three  of  the  most  refractory  prelates,  who  were  imprisoned  at 
Vincennes  (July  12,)  having  given  rise  to  a  negotiation,  the  rest 
adopted  a  modified  scheme  which  the  government  had  commu- 
nicated to  them  ;  on  condition,  however,  that  it  should  be  sub- 
mitted for  the  approbation  of  the  Pope.  But. his  Holiness,  who 
had  still  remained  at  Savona,  refused  to  treat  with  the  Council, 
which  he  declared  null  and  void,  as  having  been  convened  with- 
out his  authority.  The  project  of  Bonaparte  thus  completely 
failed ;  the  Council  was  dismissed  ;  and  twenty  of  the  Sees  of 
France  and  Italy  were  left  without  bishops. 

Before  proceeding  to  detail  the  grand  events  which  overturned 
the  dominion  of  Bonaparte,  it  will  be  necessary  to  advert  to  what 
took  place  in  Spain  and  Portugal  in  1811  and  1812.  Sickness, 
and  the  want  of  provisions,  had  at  length  compelled  Massena  to 
effect  his  retreat  (March  1,)  during  which  he  sustained  con- 
siderable loss  by  the  pursuit  of  Lord  Wellington.  Thus,  for 
the  third  time,  was  Portugal  released  from  the  invasion  of  the 
French  army.  It  would  be  impossible,  within  the  narrow  limits 
to  which  we  are  here  confined,  to  detail  the  various  marches  and 
counter-marches  of  the  Generals,  or  the  operations  in  which  they 
were  engaged.  We  can  only  point  out  the  principal  actions  in 
a  detached  and  cursory  manner. 

Marshal  Soult  retook  Badajos  (March  10,)  while  Lord  Wel- 
lington still  retained  his  position  at  Torres  Vedras,  which  he  had 
quitted  with  reluctance  to  go  in  pursuit  of  Massena.  As  the 
possession  of  that  place  was  of  importance  for  the  English,  Lord 
Wellington  determined  to  besiege  it ;  but  Marshal  Marmont 
who  had  replaced  Massena  in  the  command  of  the  army  of  the 
North,  and  Marshal  Soult  Avho  had  formed  a  junction  with  him, 
obliged  him  to  discontinue  the  siege.  He  retired  to  Portugal, 
where  he  remained  on  the  defensive  during  the  rest  of  the  cam- 
paign. The  advantages  of  the  campaign  of  1811  belonged  to 
General  Suchet.  After  a  destructive  siege,  he  took  Tortosa  by 
capitulation  (Jan.  1,)  and  Tarragona  by  main  force  (June  28.) 
He  made  himself  master  of  Monteserrat  in  the  same  manner. 
(Aug.  19.)  By  a  signal  victory  which  he  gained  over  General 
Blake  (Oct.  25,)  at  Murviedro,  the  ancient  Saguntum,  he  pre- 
pared the  way  for  the  conquest  of  Valencia,  which  surrendered 
by  capitulation  (Jan.  9,  1812.) 

At  the  commencement  of  1812,  the  French  forces  in  Spain 
amounted  to  150,000  men.  The  allies  consisted  of  52,000  Eng- 
lish troops,  24,000  Portuguese,  and  100,000  Spaniards,  mcluding 
20,000  guerillas.  Lord  Wellington  reduced  Ciudad  Rodrigo 
(Jan.  19,)  and  then  retired  once  more  mto  Portugal,  where  he 


260  CHAPTER  xn. 

kept  on  the  defensive  for  nearly  five  months.  He  then  attacked 
Salamanca,  took  that  city  (June  28,)  and  defeated  Marmont  in 
the  famous  battle  of  Areopiles,  near  Salamanca  (July  21,)  where 
Clausel  saved  the  French  army  from  a  complete  rout.  Joseph 
Bonaparte  quitted  Madrid.  Soult  gave  orders  to  raise  the  siege 
of  Cadiz,  which  had  continued  for  two  years.  He  evacuated 
Andalusia,  and  joined  King  Joseph  in  Murcia.  Wellington, 
now  master  of  Burgos,  was  desirous  to  get  possession  also  Oi 
the  citadel  of  that  place,  the  acquisition  of  which  was  necessary 
for  his  safety.  But  Souham,  who  had  succeeded  Marmont,  and 
Soult  having  approached  on  both  sides  to  save  the  town,  the 
British  General  retired  again  into  Portugal,  and  Joseph  Bona- 
parte returned  to  Madrid  (Nov.  1.) 

At  this  time  the  North  of  Europe  had  been  the  theatre  of 
great  events.  For  some  time,  the  friendship  between  the  Courts 
of  St.  Petersburg  and  St.  Cloud  had  been  growing  cool.  The 
last  usurpations  of  Bonaparte,  during  the  course  of  1810,  brought 
about  a  complete  rupture.  The  extension  of  the  French  Empire 
towards  the  Baltic,  was  becoming  a  subject  of  suspicion  and 
anxiety  to  Alexander.  The  manner  in  which  Bonaparte  had 
taken  possession  of  the  dutch}^  of  Oldenburg,  the  patrimony  of 
his  family,  was  an  outrage  against  his  person.  The  first  symp- 
tom of  discontent  which  he  exhibited,  was  by  abandoning  the 
Continental  system,  although  indirectly,  by  an  Ukase  (Dec.  13, 
1810,)  which  permitted  the  importation  of  colonial  produce, 
while  it  interdicted  that  of  France,  wine  only  excepted.  Under 
pretext  of  organizing  a  force  for  the  maintenance  of  these  regu- 
lations, he  raised  an  army  of  90,000  men.  A  rupture  with  Bo- 
naparte appeared  then  unavoidable. 

In  Sweden  also  there  arose  new  subjects  of  quarrel.  Bona- 
parte complained,  that  in  that  country  the  Continental  system  had 
not  been  put  in  execution  with  sufficient  rigour.  He  demanded, 
that  Charles  XIII.  should  put  two  thousand  sailors  into  his  pay; 
that  he  should  introduce  the  Tariff  of  Trianon,  and  admit  French 
revenue-officers  at  Gottenburg.  In  short,  Sweden,  Denmark, 
and  the  dutchy  of  Warsaw,  were  to  form  a  confederation,  under 
the  protection  of  France.  Daring  these  discussions,  Marshal 
Davoust,  who  commanded  in  the  north  of  Germany,  took  pos- 
session of  Swedish  Pomerania  and  the  Isle  of  Rugen  (Jan.  27, 
1812.)  Bonaparte  ofiered,  however,  to  surrender  that  province 
to  Sweden,  and  to  compel  Alexander  to  restore  Finland  to  her, 
if  Charles  XIII.  would  agree  to  furnish  30,000  troops  against 
Russia. 

Sweden,  on  the  contrary,  was  on  terms  of  conciliation  with 
that  power,  By  an  alliance,  which  was  signed  at  St.  Petersburg 


PERIOD  IX.      A.  D.  1810—1815.  261 

(April  5,)  Alexander  promised  to  procure  her  Norway.  A  body 
of  between  twenty-five  and  thirty  thousand  Swedes,  and  be- 
tween fifteen  and  twenty  thousand  Russians,  were  then  to  make  a 
diversion  against  France  on  the  coasts  of  Germany.  This 
arrangement  was  afterwards  changed ;  in  a  conference  which 
the  Emperor  had  at  Abo  (Aug.  30,)  the  latter  consented  that  the 
Russian  troops,  destined  to  act  in  Norw^ay,  should  be  transported 
to  Riga  for  the  defence  of  Russia;  and  that  they  should  not,  till 
a  later  period,  undertake  the  conquest  of  Norway.  Charles  XIII. 
was  also  reconciled  to  England,  while  he  had  always  pretended 
to  be  ignorant  of  the  declaration  of  war  of  November  17,  1810. 
A  treaty  of  peace  was  signed  at  Orebro  (July  12,)  where  they 
agreed,  though  in  general  terms,  on  a  defensive  alliance. 

Bonaparte,  seeing  the  moment  approach  when  a  rupture  with 
Russia  would  take  place,  hesitated  for  some  time  as  to  the  part 
he  should  take  with  regard  to  Prussia,  in  the  very  centre  of 
which  he  still  possessed  three  fortresses.  He  determined  at  last 
to  preserve  that  State,  and  to  make  an  ally  of  it,  on  which  the 
principal  burden  of  the  war  should  fall.  Four  conventions  were 
concluded  at  Paris,  on  the  same  day  (Feb.  24,)  between  these 
two  powers.  By  the  principal  treaty,  an  alliance  purely  defen- 
sive was  established ;  but  according  to  certain  secret  articles, 
that  alliance  was  declared  oflfensive;  on  such  terms,  however, 
that  Prussia  was  not  to  furnish  any  contingent  beyond  the  Py- 
renees in  Italy,  or  against  the  Turks.  By  the  first  convention, 
which  was  likewise  to  be  kept  secret,  the  alliance  was  expressly 
directed  against  Russia  ;  and  the  King  of  Prussia  promised  to 
furnish  a  body  of  20,000  auxiliary  troop3.  Glogau,  Stettin,  and 
Gastrin,  were  to  be  still  occupied  by  the  French.  The  two  other 
conventions  related  to  the  sumis  still  due  by  Prussia,  and  the  sup- 
plies which  she  had  to  furnish. 

A  few  days  after,  there  was  also  signed  at  Paris  a  defensive 
alliance  against  Russia,  between  Austria  and  France.  The  recip- 
rocal supplies  to  be  furnished  by  each,  was  30,000  men ;  and  the 
Court  of  Vienna  was  given  to  hope,  that  she  might  again  be  re- 
stored to  the  possession  of  the  Illyrian  Provinces.  From  that  mo- 
ment, Bonaparte  began  to  make  the  most  active  preparations.  By 
a  decree  of  the  Senate,  the  whole  m.ale  population  of  France,  be- 
tween the  ages  of  twenty  and  sixty  years,  was  divided  into  three 
Bans,  or  bodies  summoned  by  proclamation  ;  the  first  of  these 
contained  100,000  men,  to  be  placed  at  the  disposal  of  the  govern- 
ment. The  princes  of  the  confederation  were  to  furnish  their  con- 
tingent as  follows  : — Bavaria  30,000  troops,  Westphalia  and 
Saxony  each  20,000,  Wurtemberg  14,000,  and  the  kingdom  of 
Italy  40,000.  Negotiations  were  at  that  time  in  progress  between 


262  CHAPTER  XII. 

Bonaparte  and  Alexander,  apparently  with  a  view  of  adjusting 
their  mutual  complaints.  But  matters  had  recently  taken  a 
turn,  which  left  little  reason  to  hope  that  they  would  come  to 
any  satisfactory  result.  These  conferences  were  continued  at 
Dresden  where  Bonaparte  had  gone,  and  where  he  met  the  Em- 
peror and  Empress  of  Austria,  the  King  of  Prussia,  and  a  great 
number  of  the  princes  of  the  Rhenish  Confederation.  This 
was  the  last  moment  of  Bonaparte's  greatness.  He  waited  the 
return  of  Count  Narbonne,  whom  he  had  sent  to  Wilna  with 
his  last  proposals  to  the  Emperor  Alexander.  Immediately  af- 
ter the  arrival  of  the  Count,  war  v/as  declared  (June  12,  1812.) 

The  army  of  Bonaparte  amounted  to  587,000  men,  of  which 
73,000  were  cavalry.  It  was  separated  into  three  grand  divi- 
sions ;  the  main  army  was  composed  of  the  divisions  of  Da- 
voust,  Oudinot,  and  Ney.  It  contained  also  the  troops  of  Wur- 
temberg,  at  the  head  of  whom  was  the  Prince  Royal.  The 
second  army,  commanded  by  Eugene  Beauharnais,  consisted  of 
the  divisions  of  Junot  and  St.  Cyr  ;  the  Bavarians,  under  the 
command  of  Deroy  and  Wrede,  made  a  part  of  it.  The  third 
army,  commanded  by  Jerome  Bonaparte,  consisted  of  the  Poles, 
under  Prince  Poniatowski,  the  Saxons,  under  Regnier,  and  the 
Westphalians  under  Vandamme.  The  Austrian  auxiharies,  at 
the  head  of  whom  was  Prince  Schwartzenberg,  formed  the  ex- 
treme right  wing.  The  corps  of  Marshal  Macdonald  and  the 
Prussians,  were  placed  on  the  extreme  left.  To  oppose  this 
immense  mass,  Alexander  had  only  260,000  men,  divided  into 
two  armies,  which  were  called  the  first  and  second  armies  of 
the  West.  The  former,  under  the  command  of  Count  Barclay 
de  Tolly,  extended  as  far  as  Grodno,  and  communicated  on  the 
north  side  with  Count  d'Essen,  Governor  of  Riga ;  and  on  the 
south,  with  the  second  army  of  the  West,  at  the  head  of  which 
was  Prince  Bagration.  But  independently  of  these  forces, 
there  were  bodies  of  reserve,  and  armies  of  observation,  formed 
with  all  expedition,  and  ultimately  joined  with  the  main  armies. 

Of  the  great  number  of  battles  fought  during  this  memorable 
campaign,  we  must  content  ourselves  with  selecting  the  more 
important ;  without  entering  into  a  detail  of  the  various  move- 
ments of  either  party.  The  inferiority  of  numbers  which  Alex- 
ander had  to  oppose  to  Bonaparte,  seemed  to  render  a  defensive 
plan  advisable,  according  to  which,  by  destroying  all  the  means 
of  subsistence  in  the  districts  which  they  abandoned,  they  might 
allure  the  enemy  into  countries  desolated  and  destitute  of  every 
resource.  Bonaparte  allowed  himself  to  be  duped  by  feint  re- 
treats ;  his  scheme  was  to  place  himself  between  the  two  Rus- 
sian armies,  and  after  having  destroyed  both,  to  penetrate  into 


PERIOD  IX.     A.  D.  1810—1815.  263 

the  interior  of  the  Empire,  where  he  reckoned  on  finding  im- 
mense riches,  and  to  dictate  the  terms  of  peace,  as  he  had  twice 
done  at  Vienna. 

The  passage  of  the  Niemen,  by  the  French  army,  was  the 
commencement  of  hostilities  (June  22  ;)  the  Russians  immedi- 
ately began  their  system  of  retreat.  Bonaparie,  at  first,  suc- 
ceeded in  penetrating  between  the  two  armies  ;  but  after  several 
battles  fought  by  Prince  Bagration,  more  especially  th-at  at 
Mohiloff  (July  23,)  the  two  armies  effected  a  junction  at  Smo- 
lensko.  Jerome  Bonaparte  and  Vandamme,  to  whom  B.onaparte 
attributed  that  check,  were  ordered  to  quit  the  French  army, 
while  he  himself  advanced  as  far  as  Witepsk. 

Bonaparte  engaged  Barclay  de  Tolly,  and  fought  a  bloody 
battle  with  him  at  Smolensko  (Aug.  17.)  He  took  possession 
of  that  city  by  force,  after  it  had  been  set  on  fire  by  the  inhabit- 
ants. He  found  no  provisions  in  it,  and  scarcely  a  shelter  to 
cover  his  sick  and  wounded.  On  the  news  of  the  progress 
which  the  French  were  making,  a  general  enthusiasm  seized 
the  Russian  nation.  Alexander  had  encouraged  and  excited 
this  patriotic  spirit  by  repairing  to  Moscow.  The  nobles  armed 
their  peasantry,  and  prepared  to  fight  with  desperation  to  the 
last.  The  two  armies  of  the  West  were  combined  into  one, 
of  which  Prince  KutusofT  took  the  command.  He  engaged 
Bonaparte,  and  fought  the  famous  battle  of  Moskwa,  about 
twenty-five  leagues  from  Moscow  (Sept.  7.)  Although  65,000 
men,  including  Russians,  French,  and  allies,  were  left  dead  on 
the  field  of  battle,  that  action  was  by  no  means  decisive ;  but 
Kutusoff,  w^hose  army  was  reduced  to  70,000  men,  while  Bona- 
parte, out  of  150,000,  had  still  120,000  left,  resolved  to  continue 
his  retreat,  and  to  leave  Moscow  at  the  mercy  of  the  enemy. 
The  French  entered  that  place  seven  days  after  the  battle  (Sept. 
14.)  They  found  that  ancient  capital  entirely  abandoned,  but 
still  containing  immense  wealth  which  the  inhabitants  had  not 
been  able  to  carry  with  them.  Within  two  days,  a  conflagra- 
tion which  broke  out  in  five  hundred  places  at  once,  reduced 
that  immense  city  to  a  heap  of  ashes.  The  precautions  of  the 
incendiaries  had  been  so  well  taken,  that  all  the  efforts  of  the 
French  to  arrest  the  progress  of  the  flames  proved  ineffectual; 
and  out  of  "9158  houses,  they  could  only  save  2041.  Thus 
perished  irrevocably  the  means  of  subsistence,  which  had  for  a 
moment  revived  the  courage  of  the  invaders. 

In  a  short  time  famine  began  to  make  its  appearance  in  the 
army  of  Bonaparte.  Dissembling  the  real  state  of  his  affairs, 
he  twice  offered  peace.  Alexander  refused  to  treat  at  a  time 
when  the  war  was  only  on  the  eve  of  commencing ;  and  told 


2W  CHAPTER   XII. 

the  Russian  general-s,  that  he  was  still  resolved  to  continue  his 
retreat,  which  commenced  accordingly  on  the  15th  October. 
Marshal  Mortier,  who  commanded  the  rear-guard,  had  orders  to 
set  lire  to  the  Kremlin,  the  palace  of  the  ancient  Czars  of  Rus- 
sia. Bonaparte  directed  his  march  towards  Smolensko,  through 
a  country  reduced  to  an  entire  desert.  He  was  incessantly 
harassed  by  the  Russians,  whose  troops,  marching  at  a  conve- 
nient distance,  attacked  both  his  flanks.  On  arriving  at  Smo- 
lensko (Nov.  9,)  after  having  lost  40,000  men,  the  army  was 
assailed  by  the  rigours  of  winter,  which  added  to  their  other 
misfortunes.  KutusofT  having  advanced  before  them,  and  tak- 
ing post  at  Krasnoi,  they  were  obliged  to  force  a  passage  with 
the  loss  of  13,000  men,  and  70  pieces  of  cannon.  Two  days 
after,  11,000  men  of  Ney's  division,  laid  down  their  arms  ; 
35,000  men,  and  twenty-five  cannons  without  horses,  were  all 
that  remained  to  the  conqueror  of  Moscow. 

This  exhausted  and  dispirited  army  had  50  leagues  to  march, 
before  they  could  reach  the  Beresina,  where  other  dangers 
awaited  them.  The  passage  of  that  river  was  occupied  by  the 
army  of  Tchichagoff,  amounting  to  50,000  men,  who  had  arrived 
from  Moldavia.  Another  Russian  army,  under  Count  Witgen- 
stein,  was  marching  from  the  north  to  join  the  former  ;  but 
Marshal  Victor's  body  of  reserve,  which  had  arrived  from  Prus- 
sia, intercepted  them  for  a  while,  without  having  been  able  to 
prevent  their  final  junction.  Victor,  Oudinot,  and  Dombrowski, 
brought  a  reinforcement  to  Bonaparte  of  35,000  men,  exhaust- 
ed with  cold  and  famine.  The  passage  of  the  Beresina  was 
forced  with  admirable  bravery  (Nov.  27-28  ;)  but  it  cost  France 
or  the  allies,  the  lives  or  the  liberty  of  more   than  30,000  men. 

At  this  point,  the  main  body  of  the  Russians  ceased  to  pursue 
the  unfortunate  wreck  of  Bonaparte's  army ;  nevertheless,  as 
far  as  Wilna,  they  were  continually  harassed  by  the  Cossacs. 
There  was  besides  a  frightful  deficiency  of  provisions  and 
clothing,  so  that  upwards  of  25,000  men  fell  a  sacrifice  to  these 
privations  in  their  route  to  Wilna.  This  was  the  first  city  oi 
town  that  fell  in  their  way  ;  all  the  others  had  been  completely 
destroyed;  the  miserable  remnant  who  reached  that  place  (Dec. 
9,)  were  at  length  supplied  with  provisions  ;  but  the  Cossacs 
did  not  leave  them  long  in  the  enjoyment  of  repose.  On  the 
following  day  they  were  obliged  to  commence  their  retreat  to 
Kowno,  from  which  they  directed  their  march  towards  the  Vis- 
tula. Independently  of  the  corps  of  Macdonald,  who  had  the 
Prussians  under  his  command,  and  of  the  auxiliary  body  of 
Austrians  and  Saxons,  none  of  which  took  any  part  in  that 
route,  only  18,800  French  and  Italians,  and  about  23,000  Poles 
and  Germans,  found  their  way  back  from  Russia. 


PERIOD  IX.      A.  D.  1810—1815.  265 

Bonaparte  himself  had  taken  his  departure  privately  on  the 
5th  December,  leaving  the  command  of  the  army  to  Murat. 
Wiih  such  despatch  had  he  consulted  his  safety,  that  on  the  ISth 
of  the  same  month  he  arrived  at  Paris. 

Prince  Schwartzenberg,  being  joined  by  General  Reynier  who 
commanded  the  Saxons,  had  fought  several  engagements  with 
the  army  of  Tchichagoff,  none  of  which  had  proved  decisive  ; 
and  after  the  affair  of  the  Beresina  he  had  retired  towards  War- 
saw and  Pultusk.  Several  most  sanguinary  engagements, 
although  not  more  decisive  than  the  former,  had  taken  place 
between  Count  Witgenstein  and  the  left  wing  of  the  French 
army ;  especially  towards  the  commencement  of  the  campaign, 
when  Marshals  Oudinot  and  St.  Cyr  had  joined  Macdonald. 
On  these  occasions,  the  Prussians  had  rendered  very  important 
services  ;  but  the  moment  Geperal  Yorke,  who  commanded 
these  auxiliaries,  had  been  informed  of  the  retreat  of  Bonaparte, 
he  thought  himself  authorized,  not  from  any  political  motives 
which  he  would  never  have  avowed,  but  from  the  destitute  con- 
dition in  which  he  had  been  left,  to  conclude  a  capitulation  with 
the  Russians,  by  which  he  withdrew  his  whole  forces  from  the 
French  army  (Dec.  29.) 

That  event  was  of  little  importance  in  itself,  although  it  pro- 
duced a  very  great  sensation  in  Prussia,  and  served  as  a  pretext 
for  Bonaparte  to  demand  new  levies,  without  being  obliged  to 
acknowledge  the  whole  extent  of  the  losses  he  had  sustained. 
One  of  his  ministers,  Regnault  d'Angely,  spoke  of  the  event,  in 
his  official  report,  as  the  Glorious  Retreat  of  Moscow  !  More- 
over, a  decree  of  the  Senate,  issued  at  the  commencement  of  the 
following  year  (Jan.  11,)  placed  a  new  conscription  of  350,000 
men  at  the  disposal  of  the  government.  In  order  to  raise  the 
necessary  funds  for  this  new  armament,  Bonaparte  seized  the 
revenues  of  all  the  communes  in  France  ;  their  properties  were 
sold  to  promote  his  schemes ;  and  he  promised  to  make  them 
ample  reimbursements,  by  assigning  to  them  annuities  on  the 
civil  list. 

Nothing  annoyed  Bonaparte  so  much  as  the  incessant  resis- 
tance and  opposition  of  Pope  Pius  VII.  In  the  hope  of  gaining 
a  more  easy  victory,  by  bringing  that  respectable  old  man  nearer 
his  person,  he  had  ordered  him  to  be  conveyed  to  the  Palace  of 
Fontainbleau,  about  the  middle  of  the  year  1812.  After  his  re- 
turn from  Moscow,  he  repaired  thither  himself,  and  succeeded 
in  extorting  the  Pope's  consent  to  a  new  Concordat ;  on  condi- 
tion, however,  that  the  stipulations  should  be  kept  secret,  until 
they  were  examined  by  a  Consistory  of  Cardinals.  But  Bona- 
parte took  an  early  opportunity  of  publishing  this  new  Concor- 

voL.  11.  2.S 


266  CHAPTER  XII. 

dal,  as  a  fundamental  law  of  the  State — a  circumstance  which 
induced  Pius  VII.  to  disavow  it,  and  to  declare  it  null  and  of 
none  effect. 

Meantime,  a  new  and  formidable  league  was  preparing  against 
Bonaparte.  After  the  campaign  of  1812,  the  King  of  Prussia 
had  demanded,  agreeably  to  the  convention  of  February  24th, 
that  Bonaparte  should  reimburse  him  for  the  ninety-three  mil- 
lions which  he  had  advanced  in  furnishing  supplies  to  tl^e  French 
army,  beyond  the  sum  which  he  owed  as  his  contingent  for  the 
war.  The  refusal  of  Bonaparte  to  pay  that  debt,  served  as  a 
pretext  for  Frederic  William  to  shake  off  an  alliance  so  contrary 
to  the  true  interests  of  his  kingdom.  An  appeal  which  he  made 
to  the  nation  excited  a  general  enthusiasm  ;  and  as  every  thing 
had  been  for  fiv^e  years  preparing  in  secret,  in  the  twinkling  of 
an  eye  the  Prussian  army,  which  had  been  reduced  to  42,000 
men,  was  raised  to  128,000.  *This  defection  of  Prussia  fur- 
nished Bonaparte  with  a  plea  for  demanding  new  levies.  A  de- 
cree of  the  Senate  (April  3,  1813,)  ordered  him  180,000  addi- 
tional troops. 

The  treaty  which  was  signed  at  Kalisch  and  Breslau  (Feb. 
27,  28,)  laid  the  foundation  of  an  intimate  alliance  between  Rus- 
sia and  the  King  of  Prussia.  Alexander  promised  to  furnish 
150,000  men,  and  Prussia  80,000,  exclusive  of  the  troops  in 
garrisons  and  fortresses.  Alexander  moreover  engaged  never 
to  lay  down  arms  until  Prussia  should  be  restored  to  her  statis- 
tical, financial,  and  geographical  position,  conformably  to  the 
state  of  that  monarchy,  such  as  it  had  been  before  the  war  of 
1806.  Within  a  few  days  after,  these  two  monarchs  had  an 
interview  at  Breslau,  where  a  more  intimate  friendship  was  con 
tracted,  which  subsisted  between  them  for  a  long  time. 

Prince  Kutusoff  issued  a  proclamation,  dated  from  Kalisch 
(March  23,  1813,)  which  announced  to  the  Germans  that  the 
Confederation  of  the  Rhine  must  henceforth  be  regarded  as  dis- 
solved. The  House  of  Mecklenburg,  without  waiting  for  that 
annunciation,  had  already  set  the  first  example  of  abandoning 
that  league.  The  allies  had  flattered  themselves  that  the  King 
of  Saxony  would  make  common  cause  with  them;  but  that 
monarch  declared  that  he  would  remain  faithful  to  his  system. 
This  perseverance  of  a  respectable  Prince  whose  country  abound- 
ed with  resources,  did  much  injury  to  the  common  cause.  At 
a  later  date,  it  cost  the  King  of  Saxony  the  half  of  his  estates, 
without  taking  into  account  the  dutchy  of  Warsaw,  which  could 
never  be  regarded  but  as  a  precarious  possession. 

The  King  of  Sweden  had  engaged  with  Alexander  to  make 
a  diversion  on  the  rear  of  Bonaparte  ;  on  condition  that  he  would 


PERIOD  IX.     A.  D.  1810—1815.  267 

secure  him  the  possession  of  Norway,  or  at  least  the  province 
of  that  kino-dom  called  the  Bishopric  of  Drontheim.  Great  Bri- 
tain was  desirous  that  that  arrangement  should  be  made  with 
the  consent  of  the  King  of  Denmark,  who  was  offered  a  com- 
pensation on  the  side  of  Holstein,  as  well  as  the  whole  of  Swe- 
dish Pomerania.  Frederic  VI.  having  given  an  absolute  refu- 
sal, a  treaty  between  Great  Britain  and  Sweden  was  concluded 
at  Stockholm  (March  3,  1813,)  by  which  the  latter  engaged  to 
employ  a  body  of  30,000  troops  on  the  Continent  in  active  ser- 
vice against  France.  It  was  agreed  that  this  army  should  act 
in  concert  with  the  Russian  troops  placed,  in  consequence  of 
other  arrangements,  under  the  command  of  the  Prince  Royal  of 
Sweden.  Great  Britain  promised  to  employ  every  necessary 
means  for  procuring  Sweden  the  possession  of  Norway,  without 
having  recourse  to  force  ;  unless  the  King  of  Denmark  should 
refuse  to  accede  to  the  alliance  of  the  North.  She  promised  to 
furnish  supplies  to  Sweden,  and  ceded  to  her  the  island  of 
Guadaloupe.  After  this  alliance  with  England,  Sweden  entered 
likewise  into  a  league  offensive  and  defensive  with  Prussia,  by 
a  treaty  which  was  signed  at  Stockholm  (April  22.)  Frederic 
William  promised  to  despatch  27,000  troops  to  join  the  army 
which  the  Prince  Royal  commanded  in  Germany. 

Murat,  to  whom  Bonaparte  had  intrusted  the  command  of  the 
few  troops  which  he  had  brought  back  from  Moscow,  abandoned 
his  commission,  and  retired  to  Naples.  Eugene  Beauhamais 
then  assumed  the  command,  and  arrived  with  16,000  men  on  the 
Elbe  (March  10;)  but  after  being  joined  by  the  French  troops 
from  Pomerania,  the  Bavarians,  the  Saxons,  and  a  corps  Vvhich 
General  Grenier  had  formed,  his  army  by  the  end  of  the 
month  amounted  to  87,000  men  ;  extending  along  the  left  bank 
of  the  river  from  Dresden  to  Hamburg.  In  a  short  time,  the 
whole  disposable  force  of  Bonaparte  in  Germany  were  again 
augmented  to  308,000  men. 

The  Prussian  army  consisted  of  128,000  troops,  including 
garrisons  and  bodies  of  reserve;  but  the  three  battalions  of 
Blucher,  Yorke,  and  Bulow,  who  had  taken  the  field,  did  not 
amount  to  more  than  51,000  combatants.  The  main  army  of 
the  Russians,  which,  since  the  death  of  Kutusoff,  had  been  com- 
manded by  Count  Witgenstein,  amounted  to  38,000  men  ;  al- 
though the  whole  of  the  Russian  forces  on  the  Vistula  and  the 
Oder,  and  between  the  Oder  and  the  Elbe,  amounted  to  166,000 
men.  The  first  action,  v.^hich  took  place  in  Germany,  was  the 
battle  of  Luneburg  (April  2,)  where  the  Russian  General  Doren- 
berg  obliged  General  Morand's  division,  on  their  route  from 
Pomerania,  to  lay  down  their  arms. 


268  CHAPTER  XII. 

On  the  5th  of  April,  Bonaparte  took  the  command  of  his  an  y 
."n  person  ;  and  on  the  2d  of  May  with  115,000  men,  he  engage  i*. 
169,000  Prussians  and  Kiissians,  under  the  command  of  W  it- 
genstein.  The  advantage  in  that  action  was  on  the  side  of  the 
French.  The  loss  on  both  sides  was  equal.  The  Prussians 
took  1000  prisoners,  with  10  pieces  of  cannon,  without  them- 
selves losing  one.  The  scene  of  this  battle,  so  glorious  for  the 
Prussians,  was  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Gross-Gerschen.  to 
which  Bonaparte  gave  the  name  of  Lutzen,  in  commemoration 
of  the  famous  Gustavus  Adolphus.  In  his  bulletins  he  repre- 
sented that  battle,  which  was  by  no  means  decisive,  as  a  com- 
plete victory,  because  the  allies  did  not  renew  the  combat,  and 
next  day  commenced  their  retreat  to  the  right  bank  of  the  Rhine, 
to  advance  nearer  to  their  reinforcements. 

They  took  up  a  position  at  Bautzen.  Their  numbers  there 
amounted  to  96,000  men,  who  engaged  148,000  French,  under 
the  command  of  Bonaparte  (May  21,  1813.)  The  Allies  had 
determined  not  to  expose  themselves  to  a  defeat,  but  to  terminate 
every  battle  the  moment  they  saw  it  could  not  turn  to  their  ad- 
vantage. Within  five  days  after  that  engagement,  to  which  the 
French  gave  the  name  of  the  battle  of  Wurtchen,  Blucher  gain- 
ed a  decided  advantage  at  Haynau  ov^er  the  division  of  General 
Maison,  and  captured  the  Avhole  of  their  artillery.  An  armis- 
tice was  then  concluded  between  the  two  parties  at  Poischwitz. 

This  measure  was  at  the  request  of  Bonaparte,  as  it  was 
necessary  for  him  to  await  the  arrival  of  his  reinforcements , 
especially  since  he  found  himself  menaced  on  the  North  by  an 
invasion  of  the  Swedes.  It  is  probable  he  would  not  have  taken 
this  step  had  he  penetrated  the  views  of  Austria ;  but  Count 
Metternich  had  dexterously  contrived  to  conceal  these  from  him, 
in  the  several  interviews  which  he  had  with  him  at  Dresden,  so 
that  the  sagacity  of  that  great  commander  was  completely  at 
fault.  The  Allies  had  no  wish  for  an  armistice,  which  could 
only  make  them  lose  time,  as  their  armaments  were  in  a  state 
of  readiness  ;  but  they  consented  to  it  at  the  request  of  Austria, 
who  had  need  of  some  delay  to  complete  her  preparations, 
although  she  was  at  first  actuated  by  a  different  motive.  She 
had  still  hopes  to  avoid  the  war,  by  inducing  Bonaparte  to  accept 
those  moderate  conditions  of  peace  to  which  the  Allies  had  given 
their  consent  by  the  treaty  of  June  27,  of  which  we  shall  have 
occasion  to  speak  immediately.  At  the  time  when  the  armistice 
was  signed,  Count  Metternich,  who  had  apprized  Bonaparte  of 
these  conditions,  had  already  certain  information  that  the  two 
monarchs  were  not  deceived  in  predicting  that  they  would  be 
refused.     All  hopes  of  peace  had  now  vanished ;  but  there  still 


PERIOD  IX.     A.  D.  1810—1815.  269 

remained  another  motive,  which  made  the  Court  of  Vienna 
anxious  for  further  delay. 

By  a  convention  signed  at  Dresden  (June  30,)  Bonaparte  ac- 
cepted the  mediation  of  Austria  for  a  peace,  either  general  or 
Continental ;  and  the  armistice,  which  was  to  expire  on  the  20th 
July,  was  prolonged  to  the  10th  of  August.  At  the  request  of 
Francis  I.,  a  sort  of  congress  was  opened  at  Prague.  Bonaparte 
had  no  wish  for  peace,  as  he  never  supposed  that  Austria  would 
declare  against  him.  The  Allies  had  no  wish  for  it,  as  they 
knew  well  the  disposition  of  that  power  ;  while  Austria,  the  only 
Cabinet  which  had  pacific  views,  had  given  up  all  hope  of  ever 
bringing  Bonaparte  to  any  reasonable  terms  of  accommodation. 
Such  were  the  auspices  under  which  the  Congress  of  Prague 
was  opened.  They  were  discussing  the  form  in  which  the  ne- 
gotiations were  to  proceed,  when  the  10th  of  August  arrived. 
The  ministers  of  Russia  and  Prussia  then  declared  that  the 
term  of  the  armistice  had  expired,  and  consequently  that  their 
diplomatic  powers  were  at  an  end. 

Within  two  da3^s  after,  Austria  declared  war  against  Bona- 
parte ;  and  the  three  monarchs  who  met  at  Prague,  resolved  to 
accompany  the  main  army,  which  was  under  the  command  of 
Prince  Schwartzenberg,  during  the  whole  campaign. 

It  will  not  be  improper  here  to  give  a  summary  of  the  treaties 
which  constituted  the  sixth  coalition,  and  procured  the  accession 
of  Austria  so   decisive  for  the   cause  of  the  allies.     (1.)  The 
treaty  of  Reichenbach   (June  14,)  between  Great  Britain  and 
Prussia.     The  former  bound  herself  to  pay  to  the  other,  within 
the  six  months,  666,666Z.  sterling,  for  the  maintenance  of  80,000 
troops  ;  and  came  under  the  same  engagement  with  regard  to 
the  augmentation  of  Prussia,  that  Russia  had  entered  into  by 
the  treaty  of  Kalisch.     The  King  of  Prussia  promised  to  cede 
to  the  Electorate  of  Hanover  a  certain  portion  of  territory,  inclu- 
ding the  principality  of  Hildesheim,  and  containing  a  population 
of  between  3  and  400,000  souls.     (2.)  The  treaty  of  Reichen- 
bach between  Great  Britain  and  Russia  (June  15,)  by  which  the 
former  promised  to  pay  to  the  other,  before  the  expiration  of  the 
year,  1,333,334Z.  sterling,  for  the  maintenance  of  160,000  men. 
(3.)   The  treaty  of  Reichenbach,  between  Austria,  Prussia,  and 
Russia  (June  27  ;)   the  first  engaged  to  declare  war  against  Bo- 
naparte, if  at  the  conclusion  of  the  armistice  he  had  not  accepted 
the  conditions  of  peace  which  they  offered  him.     The  following 
are  the  proposals  to  which  we  have  already  alluded.     Austria 
on  her  own  behalf,  demanded  only  the  restitution  of  the  Illyrian 
provinces,  and  the  territory  which  she  had  ceded  to  the  dutchy 
of  Warsaw.     Such  were  the  pledges  of  her  sincere  desire  for 
VOL.  II.  23=^ 


270  CHAPTER  XII. 

restoring  peace  to  Europe.  Prussia  was  content  to  obtain  the 
restitution  of  her  part  of  the  same  dutchy,  and  that  of  Dantzic, 
and  the  evacuation  of  the  fortresses  occupied  by  the  French  ; 
thus  abandoning  all  her  possessions  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Elbe. 
Moreover,  they  allowed  the  kingdom  of  Westphalia  still  to  re- 
main, and  they  deprived  Bonaparte  only  of  his  last  usurpations 
in  the  north  of  Germany.  By  another  article  of  the  treaty,  it 
was  stipulated,  that  if  these  conditions  were  rejected,  and  war 
once  begun,  they  should  never  make  peace  but  on  condition  that 
Austria  and  Prussia  were  to  be  again  placed  on  the  footing  in 
which  they  had  been  in  1805  ;  that  the  Confederation  of  the 
Rhine  should  be  dissolved  ;  the  independence  of  Holland  and 
Italy  secured :  and  the  House  of  Bourbon  restored  to  the  throne 
of  Spain.  (4.)  The  treaty  of  Peterswaldau  between  Great  Bri- 
tain and  Russia  (July  6.)  by  which  the  former  undertook  to  sup- 
port a  German  legion  of  10,000  men  for  the  service  of  Russia, 
(5.)  A  definitive  alliance  signed  at  Toplitz  (Sept.  9,)  between 
Austria,  Prussia,  and  Russia,  by  which  these  powers  were  to 
assist  each  other  with  60,000  men.  It  was  agreed  to  reconstruct 
the  Austrian  monarchy  upon  the  plan  approaching  as  near  as 
possible  to  that  of  1805;  to  dissolve  the  Confederation  of  the 
Rhine  and  the  kingdom  of  Westphalia  ;  and  to  restore  the  House 
of  Brunswick-Luneburg.  (6.)  The  treaty  of  alliance  signed  at 
Toplitz  between  Austria  and  Great  Britain. 

Bonaparte,  on  his  side,  likewise  acquired  an  ally  at  this  im- 
portant crisis.  The  Danes  had  already  entered  into  Hamburg 
with  the  French,  when  Marshal  Davoust  compelled  General 
Tettenborn  to  evacuate  that  city,  (May  30,)  which  he  had  got 
possession  of  in  the  month  of  March.  An  English  fleet  having 
appeared  off  Copenhagen  (May  31,)  and  demanded  the  cession 
of  Norway  in  favour  of  Sweden,  the  King  of  Denmark  conclu- 
ded a  treaty  with  Bonaparte  at  Copenhagen,  by  which  the  former 
engaged  to  declare  war  against  Sweden,  Russia  and  Prussia, 
and  the  latter  against  Sweden.  Immediately  after,  an  army  of 
12,000  Danes,  under  the  command  of  Frederic  Prince  of  Hesse 
was  joined  to  that  of  Davoust. 

The  plan  of  the  campaign  for  the  allies  had  been  settled  in 
the  conference  held  at  Trachenberg  by  the  Emperor  of  Russia, 
the  King  of  Prussia,  the  Prince  Royal  of  Sweden,  and  the  pleni- 
potentiaries of  Austria  and  Great  Britain.  The  forces  of  the 
Coalition  amounted  to  264,000  Austrians,  249,000  Russians. 
277,000  Prussians,  and  24,000  Swedes;  but  not  more  than 
700,000  men  were  engaged  in  the  cam.paign  ;  of  which  192,000 
were  occupied  with  the  sieges  of  Dantzic,  Zamoscz,  Glogau,  Cus- 
trin,  and  Stettin.     These  700,000  men  were  divided  as  follows 


3?ERI0D  IX.      A.  D.  1810 — 1815.  271 

The  Army  of  Bohemia,  composed  of  Austrians,  Russians,  and 
Prussians,  under  the  command  of  Prince  Schwartzenberg, 
amounted  to  237,700  men,  with  698  pieces  of  cannon. 

The  Army  of  the  North,  composed  of  Prussians,  Russians, 
and  Swedes,  under  the  command  of  the  Prince  Royal  of  Swe- 
den, amounting  to  154,000  men,  with  387  pieces  of  cannon. 

The  Army  of  Silesia,  composed  of  Prussians  and  Russians, 
under  the  command  of  Blucher,  95,000  strong,  with  356  pieces 
of  cannon. 

The  Austrian  Army  of  Bavaria,  commanded  by  Prince  Reuss, 
containing  42,700  men,  with  42  pieces  of  cannon. 

The  Austi'ian  Army  in  Italy,  under  Hiller,  50,000  strong, 
with  120  pieces  of  cannon. 

The  Austrian  Army  of  Reserve,  stationed  between  Vienna 
and  Presburg,  under  the  command  of  Duke  Ferdinand  of  Wur- 
temberg,  60,000  strong. 

The  Russian  Ai^my  of  Reserve  in  Poland,  under  the  command 
of  Bennigsen,  57,000  strong,  with  198  pieces  of  cannon. 

To  these  forces  Bonaparte  opposed  an  army  of  462,000  men, 
including  80,000  who  occupied  thirteen  fortresses  ;  besides  the 
army  of  Bavaria,  which  watched  the  movements  of  the  Prince  of 
Reuss,  and  40,000  men  which  Eugene  Beauharnais  had  in  Italy. 

Hostilities  recommenced  immediately  after  the  termination  of 
the  armistice  ;  Silesia,  Saxony,  and  sometimes  the  frontiers,  be- 
came the  theatre  of  war.  The  Prince  Royal  of  Sweden 
covered  Berlin,  which  was  threatened  by  Marshal  Oudinot. 
The  battle  of  Gross-Beeren  (Aug.  23,)  which  was  gained  by 
ihe  Prussian  General  Bulow,  saved  the  capital.  In  Silesia, 
Blucher,  pressed  hard  b}^  Bonaparte,  had  retired  as  far  as  Jauer ; 
but  the  latter  having  intelligence  of  the  march  of  the  allies  on 
Dresden,  retraced  his  steps  with  a  part  of  his  army,  while  Blucher 
attacked  Marshal  Macdonald  at  the  river  Katsbach,  and  gained 
a  signal  victory  (Aug.  26,)  in  which  he  took  10,000  prisoners, 
and  103  pieces  of  cannon.  General  Puthod,  who  commanded  a 
detachment  of  ^00  men,  was  obliged  to  surrender  at  Plagwitz 
to  Count  Langeron  (Aug.  29.)  The  army  of  Bohemia  attacked 
Dresden  a  few  hours  after  Bonaparte  had  arrived  with  his  rein- 
forcements. The  battle  was  bloody,  and  lasted  two  days  (Aug. 
26,  27.)  Thirteen  thousand  Austrians  being  cut  off  on  the  left 
wing,  were  obliged  to  lay  do\^m  their  arms  ;  the  allies  retired  in 
good  order,  leaving  6000  men  killed  and  wounded  on  the  field 
of  battle,  and  26  pieces  of  cannon  in  the  hands  of  the  French,  who 
had  lost  18,000  men  by  that  victory.  General  Moreau,  who  had 
come  on  the  invitation  of  the  Prince  Royal  of  Sweden  to  take 
a  part  in  the  struggle  against  Napoleon,  was  mortally  wounded. 


272  CHAPTER  Xli. 

Before  the  battle,  Vandamme  had  been  detached  with  30,00t/ 
men  to  cut  off  the  retreat  of  the  allies.  He  encountered  Count 
Ostermann  Tolstoy,  who  was  at  the  head  of  8000  Austrians,  and 
repulsed  him  as  far  as  the  valley  of  Calm.  The  King-  of  Prus- 
sia, who  was  at  Toplitz,  apprized  the  Russian  general,  that  un- 
less he  made  haste  to  arrest  the  march  of  Vandamme,  the  latter 
would  succeed  in  cutting  off  the  Emperor  Alexander  from  hia 
army.  The  Russians  fought  the  whole  day  (Aug.  29,)  with  the 
most  heroic  determination ;  Count  Ostermann  having  had  his 
left  arm  carried  off  by  a  shot,  the  command  was  taken  by 
Marshal  Milloradowich.  At  length  they  were  reinforced  by 
several  Austrian  and  Russian  armies,  which  the  King  of  Prussia 
had  sent  to  their  assistance,  and  which  enabled  them  to  main- 
tain their  position.  During  the  night,  Barclay  de  Tolly  had 
arrived  with  new  reinforcements,  and  next  day  (Aug.  30,)  the 
famous  battle  of  Culm  was  fought,  which  was  decided  by  the 
arrrival  of  General  Kleist  on  the  heights  of  Noilendorf,  lying 
behind  the  position  of  Vandamme.  The  latter  finding  himself 
thus  intercepted,  a  part  of  his  cavalry  forced  their  passage,  by 
cutting  their  way  through  a  regiment  of  recruits.  Vandamme 
then  surrendered  himself  prisoner,  with  10,000  men  and  81 
pieces  of  cannon. 

The  grand  object  of  Bonaparte  was  to  get  possession  of  Ber- 
lin. Ney,  at  the  head  of  80,000  men,  was  charged  with  the  ex- 
ecution of  this  enterprise.  But  he  sustained  a  complete  rout 
at  Denewitz  (Sept.  6,)  by  the  Prince  Royal  of  Sweden  ;  and 
another  by  BulowandTauenzieo.  The  French  there  lost  20,000 
prisoners,  with  80  pieces  of  cannon,  and  all  their  baggage. 
The  plan  of  the  allies  to  withdraw  Bonaparte  from  Dresden,  and 
allure  him  into  the  plains  of  Saxony,  w^here  they  could  unite 
all  their  forces  against  him,  succeeded  entirely  to  their  wish. 
He  quitted  Dresden  (Oct.  7,)  at  the  head  of  125,000  men,  with 
the  hope  of  defeating  the  enemy  in  separate  armies.  But  the 
latter  had  mancEUvred  so  skilfully,  that  the  armies  of  Bohemia, 
the  North,  Silesia,  and  the  Russian  army  of  reserve,  were 
ready  to  effect  a  junction  on  a  given  signal.  The  plains  of 
Leipsic  decided  the  fate  of  Bonaparte.  His  army  there  amount- 
ed to  171,000  combatants.  The  allies  would  have  had  301,000, 
namely,  78,000  Austrians,  69,500  Prussians,  136,000  Russians, 
and  18,000  Swedes,  if  they  had  been  able  to  form  a  union  at 
the  commencement  of  the  battle. 

Several  different  engagements  had  preceded  this  great  battle. 
On  the  16th  October,  the  army  of  Bohemia  alone  fought  three 
several  actions  at  Wachau,  Connewitz,  and  Lindenau.  None 
of  these  were  prod  active  of  any  decisive  result;  but  Blueher 


rfiaioDix.     A.  D.  iSlO — 1S15.  273 

had  encoiintered  Marshal  Marmont  on  the  same  day,  and  de- 
feated him  at  Mockern.  On  the  following  day,  there  were  some 
engagements,  but  without  any  decisive  result ;  they  were  fought 
by  the  three  armies  of  Sweden,  Blucher,  and  Bennigsen,  who 
were  on  their  march  to  the  field  of  battle  at  Leipsic.  Bona- 
parte then  began  to  be  aware  of  the  danger  of  his  position. 
For  the  first  time  he  foresaw  the  possibility  of  a  defeat,  and 
sent  General  Bertrand  to  Weissenfels  to  secure  the  bridge  over 
the  Saai.  On  the  18th,  at  day-break,  he  made  proposals  of  an 
armistice  and  peace,  through  the  Austrian  General  Meerfeld, 
who  had  fallen  into  his  hands  ;  but  both  the  one  and  the  other 
were  disregarded.  This  was  the  first  day  of  the  battle  of  Leip- 
sic ;  the  French  army  resisted  with  great  heroism,  and  it  was 
not  till  after  the  arrival  of  Blucher  and  the  army  of  Sweden, 
that  they  were  compelled  to  abandon  part  of  their  position,  and 
TO  retire  to  the  very  gates  of  Leipsic.  Several  bodies  of  Saxons 
and  Wurtembergers  passed  over  on  that  day  to  the  ranks  of  the 
allies.  During  the  night,  the  French  army  effected  their  retreat 
by  Leipsic  to  Weissenfels.  Macdonald  and  Poniatowski  had 
orders  to  defend  the  city.  It  was  attacked  by  the  allies  next 
day.  The  French  made  a  \'igorous  resistance.  At  ten  o'clock 
in  the  morning,  Bonaparte  escaped  among  the  fugitives,  the 
cannon,  and  the  equipage  which  encumbered  the  gate  of  Altran- 
stadt.  The  Elster,  which  runs  by  the  city,  had  only  one  bridge, 
which  they  caused  to  be  blown  up  as  soon  as  Bonaparte  had 
passed.  Thus  Macdonald  and  Poniatowski  found  themselves 
fairly  enclosed  with  their  divisions.  The  latter  was  drowned 
in  attempting  to  swim  across  the  Elster.  Macdonald  was  made 
prisoner,  as  well  as  the  King  of  Saxony,  who  had  remained  at 
Leipsic.  Bonaparte,  on  these  two  days,  lost  in  killed,  wounded, 
and  prisoners,  70,000  men,  and  300  pieces  of  cannon.  The 
allies  purchased  that  victory  by  the  death  of  50,000  of  their 
troops. 

Bonaparte  directed  his  flight  with  all  haste  towards  Mayence, 
closely  pursued  by  the  Cossacs,  who  made  a  great  many  pri- 
soners, besides  a  rich  booty  in  cannon  and  baggage.  When  he 
arrived  at  Hanau,  he  found  his  passage  intercepted  by  an  enemy 
which  he  did  not  expect.  Since  the  month  of  August,  a  nego- 
tiation had  been  set  on  foot  with  the  King  of  Bavaria,  for  in- 
ducing him  to  abandon  the  cause  of  Bonaparte.  To  this  mea- 
sure he  at  length  agreed,  by  a  convention,  which  was  signed  at 
Ried  (Oct.  8,)  which  secured  to  Bavaria  the  possession  of  ab- 
solute and  independent  sovereignty,  and  complete  indemnity  for 
ihe  restitutions  which  she  was,  in  that  case,  to  make  to  Austria. 

Immediately  after  the  signing  the  convention  at  Hied^  the 


274  CHAPTER    XI i. 

Bavarian  General  Wrede,  at  the  head  of  a  body  of  between 
45,000  and  50,000  Austrians  and  Bavarians,  began  their  march 
by  Neuburg,  Anspach,  and  Wurtsburg  ;  and  after  taking  this 
latter  city,  they  proceeded  to  Hanau,  of  which  he  took  possession 
(Oct.  24,)  with  36,000  or  40,000  men.  He  encountered  the 
French,  who  in  their  retreat  had  arrived  at  Gelnhausn  ;  there  a 
battle  took  place,  which  lasted  for  several  successive  days.  Bo- 
naparte lost  25,000  men  in  killed,  wounded,  and  prisoners  ;  bat 
with  the  35,000  that  were  left,  he  forced  a  passage,  and  retired 
to  the  left  bank  of  the  Rhine.  Marshal  St.  Cyr,  whom  Bonaparte 
had  left  at  Dresden,  was  obliged  to  capitulate  w^ith  27,000  men. 
Dantzic  surrendered  with  20,000  men,  and  Torgau  with  10,000. 

In  the  month  of  May,  Eugene  Beauharnais  had  taken  the 
command  of  the  army  of  Italy,  which  occupied  the  Illyrian  pro- 
vinces. But  he  was  obliged  to  return  beyond  the  Adige,  before 
General  Hiller,  who,  having  made  himself  master  of  the  Tyrol- 
was  threatening  to  cut  off  his  retreat.  This  campaign  neverthe- 
less did  honour  to  the  French  general. 

After  the  battle  of  Leipsic,  the  Prince  Royal  of  Sweden 
marched  against  Davoust  and  the  Danes,  the  former  of  whom 
was  blocked  up  in  Hamburg,  and  the  Danes  had  retired  into 
Sleswick.  An  armistice  was  granted  them,  from  which  howevei 
Gluckstadt  and  Fredericsort  were  excepted,  as  they  had  capitu- 
lated during  the  cessation  of  hostilities.  Frederic  VI.  concluded 
a  peace  at  Kiel  in  all  haste  (Jan.  14,  1S14;)  and  Denmark  en- 
tered into  the  alliance  against  Bonaparte.  We  shall  have  occasion 
to  speak  afterwards  of  the  mutual  cessions  that  Avere  made  by 
this  treaty.  On  the  same  day  Denmark  signed  a  peace  with 
Great  Britain.  She  promised  to  furnish  10,000  men  to  take  the 
field  against  Bonaparte,  and  Great  Britain  engaged  to  pay  them 
33,333Z.  per  month.  Peace  was  at  the  same  time  established  be- 
tween Denmark  and  Russia,  by  the  treaty  of  Hanover  (Feb.  8;) 
and  between  Denmark  and  Prussia  by  that  of  Berlin  (Aug.  25.) 

Meantime  Bonaparte  had  recalled  Marshal  Soult  from  Spain 
with  a  part  of  his  troops.  Lord  Wellington,  the  Generalissimo 
of  the  Spanish  armies,  defeated  Jourdan  at  Vittoria  (June  21, 
1813,)  where  15,000  French  were  left  on  the  field  of  battle,  and 
3000  made  prisoners.  Jourdan  lost  the  whole  of  his  artillery. 
Joseph  Bonaparte  then  abandoned  the  throne  of  Spain  for  ever. 
The  activity  of  Marshal  Suchet  defeated  an  expedition  by  sea, 
undertaken  by  Sir  John  Murray  against  Tarragona.  Lord  Wel- 
lington took  St.  Sebastian  and  Pampeluna  (Aug.  31,)  and  com- 
pelled the  French  army  to  pass  the  Bidassoa,  and  to  retire  on 
Bayonne.  Soult  again  took  the  command,  and  by  means  o^ 
reinforcements  increased  the  army  to  40^000  men* 


PERIOD  IX.      A.  T).  1810—1815.  S75 

In  Germany,  the  Confederation  of  the  Rhine  and  the  kingdom 
of  Westphalia  had  both  been  dissolved.  The  Electors  of  Han- 
over and  Hesse,  the  Dukes  of  Brunswick  and  Oldenburg,  were 
restored  to  the  possession  of  their  patrimonies,  and  joined  the 
alliance.  The  King  of  Wurtemberg,  and  the  Elector  of  Baden, 
made  their  peace  with  the  Allies,  by  means  of  special  treaties. 
All  the  princes  of  the  Rhenish  Confederation  entered  into  the 
Grand  League,  except  the  King  of  Saxony,  the  Grand  Duke  of 
Frankfort,  and  the  princes  of  Isemburg  and  Leyen,  who  were 
excluded  from  it,  and  their  territories  treated  as  conquered 
provinces. 

On  his  return  to  Paris,  Bonaparte  announced  his  inteniion  of 
continuing  the  war,  and  caused  the  Senate  to  grant  him  a  new 
conscription  of  300,000  men.  Nevertheless  he  appeared  willing 
to  bring  to  a  conclusion  the  negotiations  which  the  Allies  on  the 
Continent  had  set  on  foot.  According  to  the  terms  agreed  on  at 
Toplitz,  the  Rhine  was  to  form  the  frontier  of  France,  and  the 
kingdom  of  Holland  was  to  be  given  to  a  brother  of  Bonaparte ; 
but  the  movements  of  Napoleon,  and  the  warlike  preparations 
which  he  had  ordered,  gave  England  an  opportunity  of  changing 
the  sentiments  of  these  monarchs ;  and  they  determined  to  adopt 
the  scheme  which  Mr.  Pitt  had  contrived  in  1805. 

The  decree  of  the  Senate,  of  November  18,  1813,  completed 
the  immense  number  of  1,260,000  men  ;  all  of  whom,  indepen- 
dently of  the  existing  army,  had  been  sacrificed  to  the  restless 
ambition  of  Bonaparte.  The  forces  with  which  the  Allies  in- 
vaded France,  were  divided  into  three  armies. 

The  Army  of  Bohemia,  commanded  by  Prince  Schwartzenberg, 
and  composed  of  261,000  men,  Austrians,  Russians,  Prussians, 
and  Germans,  was  destined  to  enter  France  by  way  of  Switzer- 
land, 

The  Army  of  Silesia,  under  the  command  of  Blucher,  consist- 
ing of  137,000  men,  Prussians,  Russians,  and  Germans,  were  to 
pass  the  Rhine  near  Mayence. 

The  Army  of  the  North,  composed  of  174,000  Prussians,  Rus- 
sians, Germans,  Swedes,  Dutch  and  English,  were  to  occupy 
Holland  and  the  Netherlands.  They  were  to  be  commanded  by 
the  Prince  Royal  of  Sweden,  and,  in  his  absence,  by  the  Duke 
of  Saxe-Weimar. 

Independently  of  these  three  armies,  the  Allies  had  an  army 
of  reserve  of  235,000  men,  and  the  Austrians  had  an  army  of 
80,000  men  in  Italy.  About  the  end  of  December  1813,  and 
the  beginning  of  the  year  1814,  the  two  first  armies  entered 
France.  We  can  only  advert  to  the  principal  events  of  that 
short  campaign.      After   some   actions   of  minor  importance 


276  CHAPIER 

Blucher  attacked  Bonaparte  at  Rothiere  with  a  superior  force, 
and  in  spite  of  the  vigorous  resistance  which  he  met  with,  he 
gained  a  complete  victory  (Feb.  1.)  Thirteen  days  afterwards, 
Bonaparte  returned  him  the  compliment  at  Etoges  or  Vauchamp. 
Being  enclosed  by  Grouchy,  Blucher  had  to  cut  his  way  at  the 
point  of  the  bayonet,  and  lost  6000  men. 

The  Allies,  after  having  received  various  checks,  combined 
their  two  armies  at  Troyes  (Feb.  21  ;)  but  Prince  Schwartzen- 
'T,  not  wishing  to  give  battle  in  that  position,  began  to  retreat, 
Bl'uc-Cler  then  separated  from  him  to  continue  on  the  defensive  ; 
after  being  reinforced,  however,  by  the  divisions  of  Bulow  and 
Winzingerode,  which  had  arrived  from  Belgium  ;  their  junction 
took  place  at  Soissons  (March  3.)  Blucher  took  up  a  position 
behind  the  Aisne.  Bonaparte  having  passed  that  river,  defeated 
two  bodies  of  Russians  under  Woronzoff  and  Saken  at  Craoiie 
(March  7,)  and  attacked  Blucher  at  Laon  (March  10.)  He  was 
there  totally  defeated ;  and  that  victory  induced  Schwartzenberg 
to  abandon  the  defensive,  and  march  on  Paris.  He  engaged 
Bonaparte  at  Arcis-sur-Aube,  where  the  battle,  although  bloody, 
was  not  decisive.  They  were  in  expectation  of  seeing  the  en- 
gagement renewed  next  day,  when  Bonaparte  suddenly  resoh^ed 
to  march  to  St.  Dizier,  to  cut  off  the  allies  from  their  communi- 
cation with  the  Rhine,  as  well  as  to  draw  reinforcements  from 
the  garrisons  of  Lorraine  and  Alsace,  and  thus  transfer  the  the- 
atre of  war  to  Germany. 

But  before  bringing  the  sketch  of  this  campaign  to  a  close, 
it  will  be  necessary  to  take  notice  of  the  Congress  of  Chatillon, 
which  was  opened  on  the  5th  February,  and  v/hich  was  a  con- 
tinuation of  the  negotiations  that  had  taken  place  towards  the 
close  of  the  year  1813.  The  allies  consented  to  allow  Bona- 
parte to  retain  the  crown  of  France,  but  the  limits  of  that  king- 
dom to  be  reduced  to  what  they  had  been  in  1792.  Bonaparte 
at  first  seemed  willing  to  treat  on  these  terms,  but  his  real  ob- 
ject was  to  gain  time.  Whenever  his  troops  had  gained  any 
advantage  he  immediately  heightened  his  tone ;  and  in  the 
course  of  six  weeks  the  aUies  broke  off  the  conference.  Durinir 
the  sitting  of  the  Congress  of  Chatillon,  Austria,  Great  Britain, 
Prussia  and  Russia,  signed  the  famous  Quadruple  Alliance  at 
Chaumont  (March  1,)  which  became  the  basis  of  the  new  politi- 
cal system  of  Europe.  Each  of  the  allies  engaged  to  maintain 
an  army  of  150,000  men  constantly  in  the  field  against  the  com- 
mon enemy.  Great  Britain  promised  to  furnish  to  the  three 
other  powers  a  subsidy  of  5,000,000Z.  sterling  foi  the  year  1814; 
in  such  a  way,  however,  that  she  was  only  to  pay  them  propor- 
tionallY  ^^^^^  the  end  of  the  month  in  which  the  peace  should 


Battle  of  Waterloo;  contest  of  the  42(1  Regiment  for  the  French 
Eagles.     Vol.  2,  p,  2S7. 


Battle  of  Waterloo.     Vol,  2,  p.  287. 


PEETOD  ;X.       A.  D.    1810 1815.  277 

be  concluded,  adding  to  these  two  months  for  the  return  of  the 
Austrian  and  Prussian  troops,  and  four  for  those  of  the  Russians. 
The  main  object  of  this  alliance  was  the  re-establishment  of  an 
equilibrium  of  power,  based  upon  the  following  arrangements  : — - 
German^  to  be  composed  of  Sovereign  Princes  united  by  a  fed- 
eral bond :  The  Confederation  of  Switzerland  to  be  restored  to 
its  ancient  limits  and  its  former  independence  :  Italy  to  be  divi- 
ded into  Independent  States,  lying  between  the  Austrian  pos- 
sessions in  that  peninsula  and  France  :  Holland  to  be  a  free 
and  independent  State,  under  the  sovereignty  of  the  Prince  of 
Orange,  with  an  increase  of  territory. 

Blucher  had  made  himself  master  of  Chalons  and  Chateau 
Thierry,  when  the  allies  learned,  by  an  intercepted  letter,  what 
were  the  plans  of  Bonaparte.  In  order  to  persuade  him  that 
they  had  taken  the  alarm  at  his  march,  and  were  resolved  to 
follow  him,  they  sent  Count  Winzingerode  after  him  at  the  head 
of  a  body  of  8000  cavalrj^  which  he  might  easily  mistake  for 
the  vanguard  of  the  allies.  By  this  manoeuvre  he  was  deceived, 
and  continued  his  route  eastwards  while  the  allies  directed  their 
march  on  Paris.  Schwartzenberg  attacked  and  beat  the  two 
divisions  of  Marmont  and  Mortier,  at  Sonde  St.  Croix  (March 
25,)  while  the  army  of  Silesia  compelled  Puthod  and  Amey  to 
surrender  near  Lafere  Champenoise.  This  double  encounter 
cost  the  French  5000  killed,  10,000  prisoners,  and  80  pieces  of 
cannon.  Marmont  and  Mortier  retreated  to  Paris,  but  they 
were  defeated  at  Montmartre  and  Belleville  (March  30.)  The 
heights,  which  on  that  side  overlook  Paris,  were  taken  by  the 
allies,  who  purchased  that  victory  by  the  loss  of  9000  men.  A 
capitulation  for  Paris  was  signed  the  same  night. 

The  entrance  of  the  allies  into  the  capital  of  France  took 
place  next  day.  The  Emperor  Alexander  immediately  declared 
in  his  own  name,  and  in  that  of  his  allies,  that  they  could  treat 
no  more  with  Napoleon,  or  with  any  of  his  family.  He  invited 
the  Senate  to  establish  a  provisional  government, — a  measure 
which  was  necessary,  as  the  Count  D'Artois,  who  was  appoint- 
ed the  King's  Lieutenant-General,  had  not  yet  arrived.  He 
likewise  invited  that  body  to  prepare  a  constitution,  that  is  to 
say,  to  submit  their  counsel  and  advice  to  the  King,  as  to  the 
modifications  to  be  made  in  the  government ;  for  the  French 
constitution  which  is  based  on  the  Salic  law  has  been  in  exis- 
tence for  centuries.  The  Emperor  Alexander  made  that  propo- 
sal to  the  Senate,  as  being  the  only  order  of  the  State  then  in 
existence  ;  but  that  monarch  did  not  know  that  the  Senate  was 
the  last  authority  to  which  the  public  opinion  would  have  granted 
any  influence,  as  to  the  settlement  of  the  condition  of  France 

vor,.  1T.  24 


278  CHAPTER  XII. 

The  General  Council  of  the  Department  of  the  Seine,  and  the 
Municipal  Council  of  Paris,  demanded  the  return  of  Louis 
XVIIL,  their  legitimate  sovereign  (April  1.)  In  pronouncing 
the  deposition  of  Bonaparte  next  day,  the  Senate  exercised  a 
right  which  did  not  belong  to  them.  As  that  body  owed  its 
existence  to  Napoleon,  its  functions  should  have  ceased,  with  his. 

On  the  seventh  day  of  his  march  the  Emperor  of  the  French 
discovered  his  error.  He  then  returned  in  all  haste  towards 
Fontainbleau.  After  several  unsuccessful  attempts,  either  to 
regain  his  power  or  to  transmit  it  to  his  son,  he  was  obliged  to 
sign  his  abdication  (April  10.)  Next  day  Austria,  Prussia,  and 
Russia,  drevi''  up  a  convention  with  his  delegates  Ney,  Macdon- 
ald,  and  Caulincourt,  by  which,  at  the  suggestion  of  the  Empe- 
ror of  Russia,  they  secured  him  the  possession  of  the  Island  of 
Elba,  with  full  sovereignty  ;  and  the  States  of  Parma  for  his 
wife  and  son.  Great  Britain  acceded  to  that  arrangement,  to 
which  the  King  of  France  3^et  remained  a  stranger.  Bonaparte 
soon  after  embarked  at  St.  Rapheau,  to  repair  to  his  place  of 
exile. 

The  narrow  space  to  which  we  must  confine  our  observations, 
obliges  us  to  pass  in  silence  over  the  military  events  which  took 
place  in  Holland  and  Belgium,  and  on  the  side  of  Lyons.  But 
we  must  say  a  word  or  two  on  the  war  in  the  Pyrenees  and  in 
Italy.  Anticipating  the  resolutions  of  the  Allied  Sovereigns, 
Lord  Wellington,  with  whom  the  Duke  D'Angouleme  then  was, 
invited  the  French,  by  a  proclamation  dated  January  27th,  to 
replace  Louis  on  the  throne.  Within  a  month  after,  he  defeated 
the  army  of  Soult  at  Orthes  (Feb.  27,)  and  compelled  that  Gen- 
eral to  retire  to  Tarbes.  To  satisfy  the  wishes  of  the  inhabi- 
tants of  Bourdeaux,  Marshal  Beresford  conducted  the  Duke 
D'Angouleme  to  that  place,  Avhich  was  the  first  city  in  France 
that  proclaimed  Louis  XVIIL  (March  13.)  The  allies  had 
already  entered  Paris,  and  Bonaparte  had  abdicated  his  crown, 
when  Lord  Wellington,  who  was  ignorant  of  these  events,  fought 
his  last  battle  with  Soult  at  Toulouse  (April  10.)  In  that  san- 
guinary but  fruitless  engagement,  the  French  were  totally  de- 
feated. 

In  Italy,  an  event  not  a  little  extraordinary  had  happened. 
Murat  had  turned  his  back  on  his  benef\ictor,  who  had  raised 
nim  from  the  dust  to  encircle  his  brow  with  a  diadem.  From 
the  commencement  of  the  year  1813,  he  had  endeavoured  to 
have  his  title  acknowledged  by  the  House  of  Austria.  After 
the  battle  of  Leipsic,  he  abandoned  the  Continental  system,  from 
a  wish  to  please  England,  and  throw  open  the  ports  of  his  king- 
dom to  all  sorts  of  merchandise.     He  entered  into  a  negotiation 


PERIOD  IX,     A,  D.  ]Si€^— 1815.  279 

with  the  Courts  both  of  London  and  Vienna,  with  a  view  to  be 
admitted  into  the  grand  alliance  ;  at  the  same  time,  he  set  on 
foot  an  army  of  34,000  men,  who  entered  Rom^.  and  directed 
•their  march  towards  Ancona.  Austria  concluded  an  alliance 
with  him  (Jan.  11,  1814,)  which  guaranteed  to  him  the  posses- 
sion of  the  kingdom  of  Naples,  with  the  reservation  of  an  in- 
demnity for  the  King  of  Sicily.  Immediately  after,  Murat  an- 
nounced the  change  in  his  political  conduct.  He  blockaded  the 
citadel  of  Ancona,  took  possession  of  Florence,  where  his  sister- 
in-law,  the  Grand  Dutchess,  escaped  to  save  her  life,  and  pushed 
on  as  far  as  Modena.  Lord  Bentinck,  who  commanded  the 
British  forces  in  Sicily,  then  concluded  an  armistice  with  Murat. 
Eugene  Beauharnais,  v/ho  had  supposed  that  the  Neapolitan 
army  would  come  to  his  succour,  was  at  length  undeceived,  and 
obliged  to  retreat  on  the  Mincio  ;  but  he  fought  a  battle  with 
Field-Marshal  Bellegarde  who  com.manded  the  Austrians  in  the 
room  of  Hiller  (Feb.  8,)  which  cost  the  latter  the  loss  of  8,500 
men.  in  killed,  wounded,  and  prisoners.  Fouche,  who  was  at 
Lucca  as  Commissary-general  of  Bonaparte,  concluded  a  con- 
vention with  the  Neapolitans,  in  virtue  of  which  Tuscany  was 
restored  to  them.  The  Viceroy,  seeing  himself  pressed  on  the 
one  hand  by  the  Austrians,  and  on  the  other  by  the  Neapolitans  ; 
and  having  received  intelligence  of  the  entrance  of  the  allies 
into  Paris,  negotiated  an  armistice,  which  was  signed  at  Schia- 
rino  Rizzino  (April  16.)  A  fev^  days  after,  his  friends  made  an 
attempt  to  have  him  proclaimed  King  of  Italy  by  the  people  of 
Milan.  But  the  hatred  which  the  Italians  had  for  the  French 
prevailed  over  their  attachment  to  the  Viceroy,  who  wisely  adopt- 
ed the  resolution  of  surrendering  all  the  places  in  the  kingdom 
of  Italy  to  the  Austrian  troops,  and  retired  with  his  feim.ily  to 
Germany. 

The  Senate  of  France  had,  with  all  expedition,  completed  and 
published  a  pretended  constitution  (April  6,)  in  which  two  things 
€spncially  shocked  the  opinion  of  the  public,  viz.  the  care  which 
the  authors  of  that  production  had  taken  to  secure  the  continu- 
ance of  their  own  authority  with  the  revenues  thereto  attached, 
and  the  violation  of  the  first  principle  of  monarchy  of  which  they 
had  been  guilty,  by  arrogating  to  themselves  the  right  of  con- 
fer'-ing  ihe  crown  of  France  on  him  to  whom  it  belonged  by 
bir^.h-right,  and  who,  far  from  renouncing  it,  had  taken  care  to 
secure  his  risfhts  by  formal  protestations.  Within  six  days  after, 
th°  Count  D'Artois,  the  King's  Lieutenant-general,  arrived  in 
Pvris,  and  concluded  a  convention  with  the  allies  (April  23,)  as 
a  Qrelude  to  a  general  peace.  They  engaged  to  evacuate  the 
f  Yritory  of  France ;  and  they  settled   the  terms  on  which  the 


Ji'SO  CHAPTER  XII. 

places  possessed  by  the  French  troops  not  within  their  own 
territories,  were  to  be  delivered  up.  The  King  of  France  had 
landed  at  Calais  (April  25,)  and  was  slowly  approaching  his 
capital.  A  declaration,  which  he  published  at  St.  Ouen  (May 
2,)  annulled  the  constitution  of  the  Senate,  and  promised  the 
nation  a  charter,  the  principles  of  which  were  announced  in  that 
same  declaration.  Next  day  Louis  XVIII.  made  his  solemn 
entry  into  Paris. 

The  first  care  of  Louis  was  to  conclude  peace  ^Yith  the  Allies, 
A  military  convention  was  signed  (May  28,)  regulating  differ- 
ent points  regarding  the  maintenance  and  march  of  the  troops, 
hospitals,  magazines,  &c.  ;  and  immediately  treaties  of  peace 
were  concluded  with  the  four  grand  powers  (May  30,)  to  which 
the  others  acceded.  France  was  to  return  to  her  ancient  limits 
of  January  1,  1792,  with  an  augmentation  of  territory  on  the 
north  side.  She  likewise  retained  Avignon  and  the  County  of 
Venaissin.  Louis  XVIII.  adhered  to  the  principles  of  the  al- 
liance of  Chaumont,  as  to  the  political  system  to  be  established 
in  Europe.  England  retained  Malta,  but  gave  up  the  French 
colonies,  with  the  exception  of  Tobago,  St.  Lucia,  and  the  Isle 
of  France,  with  their  dependencies.  Guiana,  which  had  been 
taken  from  Portugal,  was  restored.  Certain  secret  article? 
pointed  out  the  manner  in  which  the  Allied  Powers  were  to  dis 
])ose  of  the  territories  surrendered  by  France  ;  and  annulled  the 
endowments  and  donations  made  by  Bonaparte  in  these  territo- 
ries. Certain  special  articles  were  added  with  regard  to  Prus- 
sia, which  annulled  the  peace  of  Tilsit,  and  all  its  consequences. 

In  the  month  of  June,  the  Emperor  Alexander,  the  King  of 
Prussia,  and  Prince  Metternich,  repaired  to  London,  where  they 
concluded  a  new  quadruple  alliance,  by  which  the  contracting 
powers  engaged  to  keep  on  foot  an  army  of  75,000  men  each, 
until  the  restoration  of  order  in  Europe.  The  sovereigns 
agreed  also,  during  their  stay  in  London,  that  Belgium  should 
be  united  to  HoUand,  with  Avhich  it  was  to  form  one  and  the 
same  State. 

Immediately  after  the  conclusion  of  the  peace,  Louis  XVIIL 
published  the  charter  or  Constitution  which  he  proposed  to  the 
nation.  This  was  not  a  constitution  in  the  sense  which  had 
been  attached  to  that  word  since  the  year  1789  ;  that  is  to  say,  a 
body  of  laws  or  regulations,  fully  and  finally  settling  the  prero- 
gative of  the  King,  and  the  powers  of  the  different  authorities, 
as  well  as  the  rights  and  privileges  of  the  citizens.  It  was  a 
declaration  by  which  the  King,  in  conformity  with  the  principles 
which  had  prevailed  for  a  century,  modified  the  Royal  power 
ia  certain  respects,  and  promised  never  to  exercise  it  in  future 


PERIOD  IX,      A.  D.  1810—1815.  5^81 

*xt'-ept  according  to  the  established  forms.  Thus  the  Royal 
authority,  which  Louis  XVIIL  derived  from  his  ancestors,  and 
which  was  founded  on  the  ancient  order  of  succession,  remained 
inviolate  and  entire  in  all  its  branches. 

The  peace  of  Paris  gave  rise  to  a  multitude  of  treaties  be- 
tween the  different  powers  of  Europe.  Of  these  we  can  only 
notice  a  small  number,  which  we  shall  do  when  we  come  to 
speak  of  the  history  of  these  countries.  Meantime,  we  must 
confine  our  remarks  to  general  affairs,  and  more  particularly  to 
those  in  which  France  is  concerned. 

An  article  in  the  treaty  of  Paris,  of  May  30th,  had  stipulated 
that  within  the  space  of  two  months,  the  plenipotentiaries  of  all 
the  powers  who  had  taken  part  in  the  late  events,  France  in- 
rluded,  should  meet  in  a  general  Congi'ess  at  Vienna,  to  concert 
the  necessary  arrangements  for  completing  the  conditions  and 
regulations  of  the  treaty.  The  reconstruction  of  Germany  into 
a  body  politic  ;  the  replacing  of  Prussia  and  Austria  on  a  foot- 
ing analogous  to  the  power  which  they  had  enjoyed  in  1806 
and  1805 ;  the  fate  of  Poland ;  the  establishment  of  an  inde- 
pendent state  between  France  and  Germany  ;  the  neutrality  of 
Switzerland ;  the  organization  of  Italy,  which  had  been  com- 
pletely subverted  by  Bonaparte  ;  the  regulating  of  the  indem- 
nities which  might  be  claimed  by  the  different  States  who  had 
taken  a  part  in  the  war  ;  and  the  settling  of  the  territorial  ex- 
changes to  which  these  claims  might  give  rise,  were  the  im- 
portant objects  about  which  the  plenipotentiaries  were  neces- 
sarily to  be  employed.  To  these  England  added  one  subject 
which  might  appear  foreign  to  the  business  of  that  Congress, 
viz.  the  question  as  to  the  abolition  of  Negro  Slavery  ;  ano- 
ther arose  from  the  most  unexpected  event  of  Napoleon's  return, 
which  compelled  the  sovereigns  of  Europe  again  to  take  arms, 
and  to  conquer  France  a  second  time. 

Owing  to  different  causes,  the  opening  of  the  Congress  did 
not  take  place  till  towards  the  end  of  the  year.  We  may  men- 
tion, with  regard  to  the  form  of  the  Congress,  that  although  it 
was  composed  of  the  plenipotentairies  of  all  the  allies,  great  and 
.small,  they  never  held  any  general  Session.  The  affairs  of 
Germany  were  kept  distinct  from  those  of  the  rest  of  Europe  ; 
theCon2:ress,consisting  of  the  plenipotentiaries  of  the  five  great 
powers,  namely,  Austria,  France,  Great  Britain,  Prussia,  and 
Russia  ;  and  the  other  of  the  plenipotentiaries  of  these  and 
the  remaining  powers ;  Spain,  Portugal,  and  Sweden,  being 
added  to  the  first  five.  The  questions  relating  to  Germany, 
were  discussed  at  first  by  Austria,  Prussia,  Bavaria,  Hsi/cver, 
ai'd  Wurtemberg ;  although,  afterwards,  all  the  sovereigi."*.  -il 

VOL.  II.  ?^  ^ 


282  V  CHAPTEK  xri. 

Germany  were  called  into  these  tleliberatians.  There  were 
certain  affairs  which  were  prepared  and  discussed  by  s^)ecia} 
eommissions. 

The  subject  which  occasioned  the  greatest  difficirhy,  and 
which  was  even  on  the  point  of  disturbing  the  unanimity  of  the 
Cabinets,  was  the  reconstruction  of  the  Prussian  monarchy. 
Prussia  was  to  be  restored  to  all  that  she  had  possessed  in  1805, 
except  the  principalities  of  Franconia,  which  were  in  the  pos- 
session of  Bavaria  ',  the  district  of  Biaiystock  which  was  an- 
nexed to  Russia  ;  and  the  grand  dutchy  of  Posnania,  which 
Alexander  had  declared  his  intention  of  comprehending  in  the 
kingdom  of  Poland  which  he  proposed  to  restore.  Frederic 
William  promised  to  cede  to  Hanover  a  territory  inhabited  by 
between  three  and  four  hundred  thousand  souls.  For  these 
losses  he  claimed  an  indemnity  ;  and  as  Saxony  w^as  the  onjy 
kingdom  which  could  offer  him  compensation,  Grea^  Britain^ 
Russia,  and  Austria,  had  consented  to  an  acquisit'j^n  which 
seemed  to  be  justified  by  the  conduct  of  the  King  of  Saxony, 
who  in  1807  had  shared  the  spoils  of  Prussia,  and  in  1813  had 
made  common  cause  with  Bonaparte. 

The  EmperoT  Alexander  thus  put  Prussia  in  possession  of 
Saxony,  which  her  troops  had  till  then  occupied.  The  man- 
ner, however,  in  which  public  opinion  in  England  and  in  Eu- 
rope generally  had  expressed  itself  against  the  designs  of  Prus- 
sia, and  the  insinuations  of  the  French  minister  at  Viennaj 
induced  Austria  and  the  Cabinet  of  London  to  oppose  the  exe- 
cution of  this  plan,  not  only  by  interesting  themselves  for  the 
preservation  of  Saxony,  but  by  disputing  the  claims  advanced 
by  Prussia,  and  refusing  to  allow  the  dutchy  of  Warsaw  to  fall 
entirely  into  the  hands  of  Russia.  The  Emperor  Alexander, 
who  concurred  entirely  with  Prussia,  supported  it  with  all  his 
efforts.  Being  apprized,  however,  that  Austria,  France,  and 
Great  Britain  had  just  concluded  an  alliance  or  agreement  which 
appeared  to  have  some  reference  to  the  fate  of  Saxony,  anc! 
wishing  to  remove  every  ground  of  misundeistanding,  he  offerea 
to  augment  the  portion  of  Prussia  on  the  side  of  Poland,  and 
Advised  her  to  be  content  with  the  moiety  of  Saxony  which  was 
offered  her,  and  to  accept  the  provinces  beyond  the  Rhine,  which 
were  also  destined  for  her. 

The  five  powers  having  come  to  an  agreement  on  these  points 
(Feb.  12,)  the  king  of  Saxony  was  invited  to  come  to  the  neigh- 
bourhood of  Vienna.  Ever  since  the  battle  of  Leipsic,  that 
Prince  had  remained  in  a  kind  of  captivity  at  Fredericsfeldt  near 
Berlin.  He  accepted  the  invitation  and  repaired  to  Vienna,  but 
he  refused  to  consent  to  the  cessions  which  they  demanded  of 


VERiOD  IX.       A.  D.   1810 1815.  L'&3 

I'lim.  His  refusal  induced  the  five  great  powers  to  go  to  greater 
excess ;  'hey  ordained  that,  until  the  King  should  have  come  to 
a  determination,  Prussia  should  remain  in  possession  of  the 
whole  of  Saxony.  Frederic  Augustus  was  obliged  to  yield  to 
the  course  of  events,  and  ratified  a  treaty  whicJi  was  signed  at 
Vienna  (May  18.)  That  part  of  his  kingdom  which  was  ceded 
to  Prussia  was  named  the  Dutchy  of  Saxony. 

The  organization  of  Germany  into  a  Confederacy,  to  be  com- 
posed of  sovereign  States,  was,  next  to  the  settlement  of  Prussia, 
the  object  which  occasioned  the  greatest  embarrassment.  But 
as  France  and  Russia  took  no  direct  part  in  it,  and  as  for  that 
reason  it  can  scarcely  be  said  to  belong  to  the  class  of  general 
affairs,  we  shall  not  now  speak  of  it.  The  same  must  be  done 
•AHth  regard  to  all  the  negotiations  concerning  Switzerland  and 
Italy,  of  which  we  shall  speak  elsewhere. 

Great  Britain  had  introduced  the  question  as  to  Negro  Sla- 
very, of  which,  in  the  name  of  humanity  and  religion,  she  de- 
manded the  entire  abolition,  by  a  decree  of  all  Europe.  Den- 
mark had  prohibited  that  traffic  long  before  England.  Neither 
Austria,  Russia,  Prussia,  nor  Sweden,  had  any  motive  for 
favouring  it  ;  but  it  was  not  the  case  with  Portugal,  Spain,  and 
France,  who  referred,  with  reason,  to  the  example  of  England 
herself,  for  resisting  the  introduction  of  any  sudden  change 
which  would  be  pernicious  to  the  state  of  their  colonies,  and 
might  ruin  the  fortune  of  their  subjects.  These  powers  readily 
agreed  to  combine  with  England  for  the  abolition  of  the  trade; 
but  they  wished  that  it  should  be  left  to  each  of  them  to  fix  the 
term  on  which  they  could  do  so  to  the  most  advantage.  This 
question  was  made  the  subject  of  discussion  in  the  conferences 
between  the  eight  powers  at  Vienna.  Lord  Castlereagh  de- 
manded, in  the  name  of  the  British  government,  that  all  the 
powers  should  announce  their  support  of  the  general  principle 
of  the  abolition  of  the  slave  trade,  and  their  wish  to  carry  that 
measure  into  effect  with  the  shortest  possible  delay.  This  pro- 
position was  unanimously  adopted  ;  but  the  other  proposal  which 
he  made,  to  inquire  into  the  possibility  of  an  immediate  aboli- 
tion, or  at  least,  into  the  period  when  each  of  the  powers  might 
be  able  to  fix  its  ultimate  abolition  ;  and  a  third  by  which  he 
v/ished  to  obtain  an  immediate  partial  abolition  of  that  traffic,  met 
with  the  most  decided  resistance  on  the  part  of  the  three  States 
who  had  foreign  colonies.  As  the  four  other  powers  had  no 
right  to  interfere  in  the  internal  legislation  of  these  States,  the 
Declaration  which  the  Congress  published  (Feb.  8,)  proclaimed 
the  principle  recognised  by  them  all,  viz.  that  the  determination 
of  the  period  when  the  trade  was  to  cease  generally  should  be 
left  to  the  negotiations  of  the  contracting  powers. 


284  CHAPTER  XII. 

Europe  was  in  the  enjoyment  of  apparent  tranquillity,  when 
Bonaparte  quitted  Elba,  landed  with  a  thousand  adventurers  on 
the  shores  of  France  (March  1,)  invited  his  former  friends  to  join 
him,  and  deceiving  the  inhabitants  by  pretending  to  be  supported 
by  Austria,  marched  towards  Paris,  which  he  entered  within 
twenty  days  after  his  landing.  The  King  and  the  Royal  Family 
were  again  obliged  to  retire  to  Lille.  When  Louis  arrived  in 
that  city,  he  signed  an  order  for  disbanding  the  army  ;  but  the 
greater  part  of  the  troops  had  already  sworn  allegiance  to  Napo- 
leon. Finding  himself  insecure  at  Lille,  the  King  retired  to 
Ghent  (March  30.)  Bonaparte  published  a  new  constitution 
(April  22,)  under  the  title  of  The  Additional  Act  to  the  Consti- 
tution of  the  Empire.  One  of  the  articles  which  it  contained, 
pronounced  the  perpetual  banishment  of  the  Bourbons.  In  order 
to  flatter  the  partisans  of  the  sovereign  people,  this  act  was  sub- 
mitted for  their  acceptance,  and  Bonaparte  summoned  an  assem- 
bly of  extraordinary  deputies,  to  meet  in  the  Champ  de  Mai.  He 
likewise  summoned  a  Chamber  of  the  Representatives,  or  Legis- 
lative Body.  The  meeting  of  the  Champ  de  Mai  was  held  ;  and 
two  days  after,  a  Chamber  of  Peers,  created  by  Bonaparte,  and 
a  Chamber  of  the  Representatives  of  the  Nation,  opened  their 
sessions. 

So  soon  as  the  news  of  the  landing  of  Bonaparte  in  France 
was  received  at  Vienna,  the  eight  contracting  powers  published 
a  declaration,  importing,  that  as  Bonaparte  had  thus  broken  the 
convention  which  had  placed  him  in  the  Island  of  Elba,  he  had 
destroyed  the  only  legal  title  on  which  his  existence  depended^ 
and  had  thus  forfeited  all  relations,  civil  and  social.  The  allied 
sovereigns  refused  to  receive  the  letters  by  which  he  announced 
to  .them  that  he  had  again  taken  possession  of  the  throne  of 
France.  Being  of  opinion,  that  the  time  was  come  for  executing 
the  engagements  they  had  contracted  at  Chaumont,  the  four 
powers  who  were  parlies  to  that  treaty,  renewed  their  engage- 
ments by  new  treaties  of  alliance  (March  25.)  They  promised 
to  combine  all  their  forces  for  maintaining  the  treaty  of  Paris  of 
May  30th  1814,  and  to  set  on  foot,  each  of  them,  an  army  of 
180,000  men.  By  an  additional  convention.  Great  Britain  un- 
dertook to  pay  to  the  three  others,  subsidies  to  the  amount  of 
5,000,000/.  Sterling  per  annum.  All  the  princes  of  the  Germanic 
Confederation. — Portugal,  Sardinia,  the  Netherlands,  Switzer- 
land, and  Denmark,  acceded  to  this  alliance  ;  and  Great  Bri- 
tain granted  subsidies  to  them  all,  proportioned  to  the  forces 
which  they  might  send  into  the  field.  Of  all  the  powers  having 
plenipotentiaries  at  Vienna,  Spain  and  Sweden  only  declined 
enterinof  into  this  alliance.     The  King  of  Spain  refused  his  ^c- 


PERIOD  IX.     A.  D.  1810—1815.  285 

cession,  as  being  contrary  to  his  dignity  ;  he  would  have  had  no 
objections  to  have  become  a  principal  party,  and  he  co-operated 
as  such  in  the  war.  Sweden  was  too  much  occupied  with  the 
conquest  of  Norway  to  take  any  part  in  the  deliverance  of  France. 

There  was  still  another  monarch  who  had  not  joined  the  alli- 
ance of  Vienna,  and  that  was  Murat.  The  King  of  France  had 
refused  to  acknowledge  him  as  King  of  Naples,  and  Lord  Cas- 
tlereagh  had  declared  at  Vienna,  that  Great  Britain  could  not 
treat  with  Murat,  as  he  had  not  fulfilled  his  engagements  ;  and, 
therefore,  that  it  depended  on  the  Congress  to  decide  as  to  the 
fate  of  the  kingdom  of  Naples.  These  declarations  induced 
Murat  to  take  arms  ;  nevertheless,  he  continued  to  dissemble, 
until  he  learned  that  Bonaparte  had  arrived  at  Lyons.  Then 
it  was  that  he  threw  off  the  mask.  He  marched  at  the  head  of 
his  army  towards  the  Po,  and  issued  a  proclamation  (March  30,) 
by  which  he  proclaimed  liberty  to  all  the  inhabitants  of  Italy. 
The  Austrian  army  in  that  peninsula,  immediately  put  them- 
selves in  motion  to  oppose  him.  Being  defeated  at  Tolentino  by 
General  Bianchi  (May  2,)  he  retreated  first  to  Naples,  and  after 
a  short  stay  there,  he  took  refuge  in  France.  The  government 
of  Ferdinand  IV.  was  again  restored. 

Meantime,  as  the  partisans  of  Bonaparte,  and  the  revolution- 
ists every  where,  were  at  great  pains  to  propagate  and  cherish 
doubts  as  to  the  determination  of  the  allied  sovereigns  to  follow 
up  the  act  of  the  13th  March,  which  had  been  adopted  at  a 
time  when  it  was  hoped  that  France  would  have  no  more  need 
of  foreign  aid ;  the  allied  sovereigns  deemed  it  necessary  to 
make  known  the  expression  of  their  principles  by  a  solemn  act ; 
to  which  they  gave  the  form  of  a  proces-verhal,  or  edict,  signed 
by  the  plenipotentiaries  of  the  eight  powers.  The  publication 
of  that  act  was  equivalent  to  a  declaration  of  war  against  Bona- 
parte. It  opened  the  eyes  of  those  credulous  followers  who  had 
till  then  believed  that  Austria  and  Russia  were  on  friendly 
terms  with  him. 

All  the  negotiations  of  the  Congress  of  Vienna  being  termi- 
nated by  the  signing  of  the  Act  of  the  Germanic  Confederation, 
which  took  place  on  June  8th,  the  plenipotentiaries  of  the  eight 
contracting  powers  next  day  signed  the  Act  of  Congress^  which 
was  a  recapitulation  or  abstract  of  all  their  preceding  regula- 
tions, either  by  particular  treaties  or  by  declarations  and  edicts, 
(or  protocols,  as  they  are  sometimes  called  at  Vienna,)  relative 
to  Poland,  the  territorial  arrangements  in  Germany,  the  Ger- 
manic Confederation,  the  kingdom  of  the  Netherlands,  Switzer- 
land, Italy,  Portugal,  the  navigation  of  rivers,  the  rank  of  dip- 
lomatic agents,  and  the  form  of  accessions  and  ratifications  of 


2S6  CHAPTER  XII. 

the  act  itself.  Thus  did  this  august  assembly  terminate  its 
labours. 

An  army  of  1,365,000  men  were  preparing  to  invade  France, 
but  the  struggle  against  Bonaparte  was  decided  by  about 
200,000  ;  and  not  more  than  500,000  foreigners  set  foot  on  the 
soil  of  France.     The  allies  had  formed  four  armies,  viz. 

The  Army  of  the  'Netherlands,  commanded  by  Lord  Welling- 
ton, consisting  of  71,000  English,  Hanoverians,  and  Bruns- 
wickers,  with  the  troops  of  the  Netherlands  and  Nassau. 

The  Army  of  the  Loiver  Rhine,  consisting  of  140,000  Prus- 
sians, under  the  command  of  Blucher. 

The  Army  of  the  Upper  PJmie,  commanded  by  Schwartzen- 
berg,  and  consisting  of  130,000  Austrian,  and  124,000  German 
troops. 

The  Arviy  of  the  Middle  Rhine,  168,000  strong,  under  the 
command  of  Barclay  de  Tolly.  They  were  to  be  stationed  be- 
tween the  two  preceding  armies,  but  they  were  unable  to  arrive 
in  lime  at  the  scene  of  action,  and  the  campaign  was  decided 
by  the  first  two  armies  alone. 

The  forces  of  Bonaparte  amounted  to  213,000  men,  exclusive 
of  147,000  of  the  national  guard  to  be  employed  in  garrison. 
He  had  divided  them  into  eight  armies.  That  of  the  north, 
which  he  commanded  himself,  consisted  of  108,000  men. 

Bonaparte  opened  the  campaign  on  the  15lh  June,  by  de- 
taching a  second  corps  across  the  Sambre,  to  attack  the  Prussian 
General  Zieten,  who  was  obliged  to  yield  to  the  superior 
strength  of  the  enemy,  and  retire  towards  Fleurus.  Next  day 
the  Duke  of  Brunswick,  who  had  left  Brussels  at  the  head  of 
12,000  men  to  support  the  Prussians,  was  killed  at  Quatre  Bras  ; 
Marshal  Ney,  who  commanded  the  French,  sustained  a  consi- 
derable loss ;  on  the  same  day  Marshal  Blucher  was  defeated 
at  Ligny,  but  he  retired  in  the  greatest  order  to  Brie.  Bona- 
parte from  that  moment  resolved  to  attack  Wellington,  who 
gave  him  battle  at  Waterloo,  or  Mont  St.  Jean.  The  combat 
was  continued,  with  various  success,  from  morning  till  four 
o'clock,  when  the  Prussians,  consisting  of  General  Bulow's  di- 
vision, and  commanded  by  Blucher  in  person,  approached  the 
field  of  battle,  and  fell  suddenly  on  the  right  wing  of  the  French, 
while  Bonaparte  supposed  that  the  whole  Prussian  army  was 
engaged  with  Grouchy,  whom  he  had  sent  against  them  with  a 
detachment  of  40,000  men.  On  the  first  appearance  of  the 
Prussians,  Bonaparte  supposed  that  it  was  General  Grouchy, 
who  after  having  defeated  the  Prussians,  was  marching  to  the 
support  of  his  right  wing.  The  fact  is,  that  General  Thiel- 
mans,  having  been  attacked  by  Grouchy  near  Wavre,  Blucher 


PERIOD  IX.      A.  D.  1810— ISM  287 

had  sent  nim  word  to  defend  himself  the  best  way  he  could, 
and  did  not  allow  himself  to  be  diverted  from  his  original  plan 
of  falling  upon  the  right  wing  of  Bonaparte.  When  Bonaparte 
at  length  discovered  his  error,  he  lost  all  resolution.  His  army- 
were  panic-struck,  and  fled  in  all  directions.  He  was  himself 
nearly  taken  prisoner,  having  escaped  with  great  difficulty. 
The  Germans  have  given  this  battle  the  name  of  Belle  Alliance, 
from  the  house  where  Blucher  and  Wellington  met  after  the 
action.  Of  120,000  French,  60,000  were  either  taken  or  killed 
in  the  two  days  of  the  16th  and  18th  June  1815 ;  64,000  Eng- 
lish, and  50,000  Prussians  were  engaged  in  the  battle.  The 
English  lost  14,000  men  on  the  18th,  and  the  Prussians  33,000 
in  the  two  engagements  of  the  16th  and  18th. 

Bonaparte  made  his  escape  to  Paris,  but  the  Chamber  of 
Representatives,  composed  of  the  partisans  of  the  Revolution  of 
1789,  and  of  Republicans  who  had  no  wish  to  promote  the  in- 
terest of  Bonaparte,  except  as  an  instrument  for  the  execution 
of  their  own  plans,  determined  to  take  advantage  of  the  con- 
tempt into  which  he  had  fallen  to  get  rid  of  his  presence.  They 
required  him  to  abdicate,  which  he  did  June  22d,  in  favour  of 
his  son.  The  Chambers  appointed  a  government  commission, 
at  the  head  of  which  they  placed  Fouche,  who  sent  deputies  to 
Heidelberg,  where  the  head-quarters  of  the  Allied  Sovereigns 
then  were,  with  a  commission  to  treat  with  them  on  the  basis 
of  the  national  independence,  and  the  inviolability  of  the  soil 
of  France.  But  as  there  was  no  mention  made  in  the  proposi- 
tions about  the  restoration  of  the  King,  the  allies  refused  to 
treat  until  Bonaparte  should  first  be  delivered  up  to  them. 

Bonaparte  had  demanded  of  Wellington  and  Blucher,  pass- 
ports for  quitting  France  ;  and  on  being  refused,  the  govern- 
ment commission  conveyed  him  to  Rochefort,  where  he  was  to 
embark  on  board  a  frigate  and  go  to  America.  But  Captain 
Maitland,  who  was  cruising  off  that  port  with  an  English  ves- 
sel, prevented  him  from  leaving  the  place  unless  he  would  sur- 
render to  the  English,  on  which  condition  he  promised  to 
guarantee  his  life.  The  danger  becoming  every  day  more 
pressing,  he  at  length  saw  himself  compelled  to  submit.  The 
Bellerophon,  with  Bonaparte  on  board,  arrived  in  Torbay  (July 
24,)  but  the  English  government  would  not  permit  the  General 
to  set  foot  on  land.  By  a  convention  signed  by  the  allies  at 
Paris  (Aug.  2,)  England  took  upon  herself  the  charge  of  keep- 
ing guard  over  him  at  St.  Helena.  He  was  accordingly  trans- 
ported to  that  island,  where  he  remained  till  his  death,  which 
happened  May  5th,  1821. 

After  the  battle  of  the  18th  June,  Wellington  and  Blucher 


288  CHAPTER  XII. 

marched  immediately  to  Paris,  as  did  also  the  army  of  Schwart* 

zenberg  by  way  of  Nancy.  Davoust  had  joined  the  fugitives  : 
and  as  Grouchy  had  had  the  good  fortune  to  save  his  division,  they 
were  enabled  to  form  a  new  army  of  60,000  men,  which  made 
some  attempts  to  defend  Paris.  Several  engagements  took  place 
at  Sevres  and  Issy ;  after  which  Marshal  Davoust  announced  to 
the  two  Field-Marshals  that  Paris  was  on  the  point  of  surren- 
dering. A  capitulation  was  signed  at  St.  Cloud  (July  3,)  and 
the  French  army  retired  behind  the  Loire. 

The  allies  occupied  Paris  on  the  7th  July,  and  Louis  XVIII 
entered  on  the  following  day.  Within  two  days  after,  the  Allied 
Sovereigns  arrived.  A  decree  of  24th  July  declared  twenty- 
nine  individuals,  named  in  1814,  unworthy  of  their  country, 
as  having  sat  in  the  Chamber  of  Bonaparte,  and  sworn  the  ban- 
ishment of  the  Bourbons.  Nineteen  persons  accused  of  having 
betrayed  the  King  before  the  23d  March,  were  remitted  to  the 
tribunals  ;  thirty-eight  other  individuals  were  ordered  to  quit 
Paris.  These  latter  were  in  general  relapsed  regicides,  that  is, 
persons  who,  after  having  obtained  pardon  in  1814,  had,  in  1815. 
signed  the  banishment  of  the  Bourbons  ;  for  the  King  never 
broke  his  word  of  honour  given  to  the  primary  regicides,  to 
leave  them  to  the  remonstrances  of  their  own  conscience.  Some 
months  after  (Jan.  12,  1816,)  the  decree  of  July  24th  was 
changed  into  a  law ;  with  this  modification,  that  the  relapsed 
regicides  were  to  be  exiled  from  the  soil  of  France.  Of  the  in- 
dividuals arraigned  before  the  tribunals,  two  only  were  executed, 
Marshal  Ney  and  Colonel  Labedoyere  ;  a  third  (Lavalette,)  was 
saved  by  the  courage  of  his  wife.  The  clemency  of  the  King 
threw  a  veil  over  all  other  crimes. 

The  army  of  the  Loire  submitted  to  the  King  ;  but  the  war 
continued,  nevertheless,  for  some  time  on  the  frontiers  of  France, 
as  it  was  a  part  of  the  plan  of  the  allies  to  occupy  all  the  for- 
tresses ;  and  the  greater  part  of  the  commandants  refused  to  re- 
ceive them.  The  allies  were  at  length  convinced,  that  in  order 
to  secure  the  tranquillity  of  France,  it  was  necessary  to  take 
more  vigorous  measures  than  they  had  done  in  1814 ;  but  it 
was  not  until  the  month  of  September  that  their  plan  was  suf- 
ficiently matured  to  enable  them  to  open  negotiations  with  France. 
They  had  many  difficulties  to  encounter  ;  and  the  treaty  be- 
tween France  and  the  Allies  was  not  signed  until  the  20th  No- 
vember. According  to  that  treaty,  France  made  several  terri- 
torial cessions  to  the  Netherlands,  Prussia,  Austria,  Bavaria, 
Switzerland,  and  the  King  of  Sardinia. 

It  was  agreed,  that  France  should  pay  to  the  allies  a  pecuni- 
ary indemnity  of  seven  hundred  millions  of  francs  ;  that  1/50,000 


Street  fighting  before  the  Church  of  St.  Roch,  July  28th,  1S30. 


Place  du  Chatelet,  July  28,  1830.     Vol.  2,  p.  318. 


I  PERIOD  IX.     A.  D.  ISiO — 1815.  2S9 

of  the  allied  troops  should  occupy  certain  places  in  France  for 
6ve  years ;  and  that  they  should  be  paid  and  maintained  by 
France.  By  an  additional  article,  they  engaged  reciprocally  to 
concert  measures  for  obtaining  the  entire  and  final  abolition  of 
the  slave  trade. 

The  same  day,  Austria,  Great  Britain,  Prussia  and  Russia, 
concluded  an  alliance  for  the  following  purposes: — (1.)  The 
maintenance  of  the  treaties  and  conventions  which  had  just  been 
concluded:  And,  (2.)  The  perpetual  exclusion  of  Napoleon  Bo- 
naparte and  his  family  from  the  sovereignty  of  France  ;  the 
maintenance  of  tranquillity  in  that  country  ;  and  the  suppression 
of  revolutionary  principles,  so  that  they  might  never  again  dis- 
tract France,  or  threaten  the  repose  of  Europe.  For  this  two- 
fold object,  the  allies  agreed  to  furnish  their  contingents  as  de- 
termined by  the  alliance  of  Chaumont ;  finally,  they  agreed  to 
have  another  personal  conference  in  the  course  of  the  year  1818. 

Prior  to  this  quadruple  alliance  which,  by  securing  the  main- 
tenance of  the  Bourbon  dynasty  on  the  throne  of  France,  forms 
one  of  the  bases  of  the  new  political  system  of  Europe,  the  Em- 
perors of  Austria  and  Russia,  and  the  King  of  Prussia,  signed 
at  Paris  (Sept.  26,)  an  Act,  known  by  the  name  of  the  Holy 
Alliance^  which  forms  the  second  basis  of  the  same  system.  The 
real  object  of  this  alliance  was  doubtless  a  mutual  guarantee 
against  any  encroachments  which  might  be  made  on  their  sov- 
ereign power  ;  to  disguise  this,  it  set  forth  their  firm  determina- 
tion to  take  no  other  rule  for  their  conduct  than  the  precepts  of 
the  Christian  religion.  They  promised  to  continue  in  the  in- 
dissoluble bonds  of  brotherly  union,  and  to  be  ready  on  all  occa- 
sions, and  in  all  places,  to  succour  and  assist  each  other — to 
consider  themselves  but  as  members  of  the  same  Christian  na- 
tion, and  as  delegated  by  Providence  to  govern  three  branches 
of  the  same  family  ;  and  finally,  to  receive  into  the  same  alliance 
all  other  powers  w^ho  were  willing  to  profess  the  same  principles 
which  had  dictated  that  act.  All  the  Christian  powers  in  Eu- 
rope acceded  to  the  treaties  and  conventions  of  the  20th  Novem- 
ber 1815,  except  Sweden,  who  had  taken  no  share  in  tlie  war. 
They  all  entered  into  the  Holy  Alliance,  except  the  King  of 
Great  Britain,  who,  while  he  fully  sanctioned  the  principles  set 
forth  in  that  Act,  was  prevented  from  signing  it,  because,  accord- 
ing to  the  constitutional  custom  of  England,  the  Sovereign  signs 
nothing  without  the  countersigning  of  a  responsible  minister. 

Here  it  will  be  necessary  briefly  to  point  out  the  more  impor 
tant  events  which  happened  since  1811  in  the  other  European 
States,  and  the  changes  which  were  produced  by  the  Congress 
of  Vienna. 

VOL.  II.  '^5 


290  CHAPTER  xir. 

Portugal  seemed  destined  to  be  nothing-  more  in  future  than 
a  dependency  of  Brazil,  in  a  political  pomt  of  view,  as  she  al' 
ready  was  o^  England  with  respect  to  agriculture,  industry,  and 
commerce.  The  latter  power  attached  so  great  an  importance 
to  the  abolition  of  the  slave  trade,  that  by  a  treaty  signed  during 
the  conf'^.rences  at  Vienna,  she  had  purchased  the  effective  co- 
operation of  Portugal  in  this  measure,  by  giving  up  all  the  ad- 
vantages which  she  had  reserved  to  herself  by  the  treaty  of  Rio 
Janeiro  of  February  19th  1810,  which  she  consented  to  annul; 
nevertheless,  Portugal  only  prohibited  her  subjects  conditionally 
from  carrying  on  the  slave  trade  in  that  part  of  Africa  lying  to 
the  north  of  the  Equator. 

In  Spain,  the  Extraordinary  Cortes  then  assembled  at  Cadiz, 
after  having  published  a  decree,  January  1,  1811,  importing  that 
they  could  make  no  treaty  with  France  until  the  King  enjoyed 
full  liberty,  and  that  he  could  not  be  regarded  as  at  liberty  until 
he  had  taken  the  constitutional  oath,  finished  the  work  which 
they  alleged  had  been  intrusted  to  their  hands.  Their  constitu- 
tion, which  was  founded  on  the  principle  of  the  sovereignty  of 
the  people,  intrusted  the  legislative  power  to  a  popular  assembly, 
and  the  execution  of  the  laws  to  a  functionary  with  limited  au- 
thority, decorated  with  the  title  of  a  King,  was  published  on  the 
18th  of  March  1812.  In  violation  of  historic  truth,  it  was  an- 
nounced to  the  world  as  the  genuine  ancient  constitution  of  Spain. 
The  Cortes  terminated  their  session  on  the  20th  September 
1813.  The  new  or  ordinary  Cortes,  convened  in  the  constitu- 
tional form  at  the  rate  of  one  deputy  for  every  70,000  inhabitants, 
without  distinction  of  fortune  or  estate,  transferred  their  sitting 
to  Madrid  towards  the  end  of  the  year.  It  was  this  extraordi- 
nary meeting  of  the  Cortes  that  concluded  a  treaty  of  friendship 
and  alliance  (July  28,  1813)  with  the  Emperor  of  Russia  at 
Weliki-Louki,  where  he  had  then  his  head-quarters.  Alexan- 
uu  *here  acknowledged  the  Cortes  and  their  constitution.  That 
acknowledgment  was  extremely  simple.  Alexander  could  no< 
treat  except  with  the  government  then  established.  That  gov- 
ernment acted  in  the  name  of  Ferdinand  VII.,  and  their  acts 
were  to  be  regarded  as  legitimate  so  long  as  that  prince  had  not 
disavowed  them.  The  Emperor  of  Russia  had  neither  the  will 
nor  the  power  to  lend  his  sanction  to  an  order  of  things  which 
had  not  the  approbation  of  a  King,  in  the  full  enjoyment  of  lib- 
erty It  was  in  this  same  sense  that  the  King  of  Prussia  enter- 
ed into  an  alliance  with  the  Spanish  government,  by  a  treaty 
which  was  signed  at  Basle  (Jan.  20,  1814.) 

After  returning  from  the  campaign  of  1813,  Bonaparte  con- 
sidering Spain  as  lost,  resolved  to  set  Ferdinand  VII.  at  liberty  ; 


PERIOD  13C.     A.  D.  1810 — 1815.  291 

but  in  the  hope  of  turning  that  tardy  act  of  justice  to  his  advan- 
tage by  making  that  prince  his  friend,  he  represented  Spain  as 
overrun  with  Jacobinism,  which  was  labouring  to  overturn  the 
throne,  and  to  substitute  a  republic  in  its  place  ;  and  he  accused 
England  as  having  favoured  that  project.  Ferdinand  VII.  de- 
manded that  a  deputation  of  the  Regency  should  be  admitted  to 
a  personal  interview  with  him,  who  might  inform  him  as  to  the 
real  state  of  matters.  Bonaparte,  who  executed  with  despatch 
whatever  he  had  once  resolved,  found  this  mode  of  proceeding 
too  slow.  He  empowered  M.  de  la  Foret,  whom  he  had  sent  to 
Valencay  to  conclude  a  treaty  with  his  captive,  by  which  the 
latter  was  acknowledged  King  of  Spain ;  and  promised,  on  his 
part,  to  cause  the  English  troops  to  evacuate  the  whole  of  that 
kingdom. 

Ferdinand  VII.  sent  his  minister,  the  Duke  of  San  Carlos,  to 
Madrid,  for  the  ostensible  purpose  of  communicating  that  treaty 
to  the  Regency,  but  in  reality  to  take  cognizance  of  the  state  of 
affairs.  The  Regency  refused  to  acknowledge  the  treaty  of 
Valencay,  because  the  King  was  not  at  liberty.  Bonaparte  being 
apprized  of  this  difficulty,  immediately  released  Ferdinand  (Mar. 
7,  1814.)  He  set  out  on  his  return  to  his  dominions,  but  per- 
formed his  journey  slowly,  that  he  might  have  leisure  to  obtain 
personal  information,  as  to  the  spirit  which  reigned  among  the 
Spaniards.  He  was  soon  convinced,  that  the  people,  attached 
to  their  religion,  and  to  the  family  of  their  lawful  prince,  were 
very  indifferent  about  the  constitution  of  the  Cortes,  and  that 
that  assembly  enjoyed  very  little  influence  or  authority.  Sixty 
members  of  the  Cortes  had  even  protested  against  an  Act  which, 
by  degrading  the  Royal  Dignity,  was  preparing  the  way  for  es- 
tablishing a  democracy.  On  his  arrival  at  Valencia,  Ferdinand 
abrogated  ihe  constitution  of  1812,  and  directed  his  course  to- 
wards Madrid,  which  he  entered  on  the  17th  May.  The  people 
every  where  expressed  their  attachment  to  a  prince,  whose  ar- 
rival they  hailed  as  the  return  of  justice  and  order ;  though  it 
is  foreign  to  our  purpose  to  narrate  why  that  hope  has  not  been 
realized. 

Great  Britain  was  the  power  which  acted  the  most  conspicuous 
part  during  the  era  of  which  we  have  given  the  preceding  his- 
torical sketch.  The  fortitude  and  perseverance  with  which  she 
had  prosecuted  her  system  of  policy,  after  the  breaking  of  the 
peace  of  Amiens,  was  crowned  with  the  most  complete  success ; 
and  the  plan  conceived  by  Mr.  Pitt,  but  which  that  great  states- 
man had  despaired  ever  to  see  carried  into  execution,  became 
the  corner-stone  of  the  future  policy  of  Europe.  Great  Britain 
was  the  mainspring  of  the  alliance,  which  in  1813  undertook  the 


5(02  CHAPTER  XH. 

deliverance  of  Europe.  She  made  the  most  extraordinary  eflfarts 
in  raising  armies,  and  granting  supplies  for  maintaining  the 
troops  of  the  Continental  nations. 

A  mental  calamity,  with  which  George  III.  had  been  afflicted 
towards  the  end  of  the  year  1810,  obliged  the  Parliament  to 
establish  a  regency.  That  important  charge  belonged  of  right 
to  the  presumptive  heir  to  the  crown  ;  but  as  the  ministry  were 
apprehensive  that  the  Prince  of  Wales  might  in  some  respects 
change  the  system  of  the  existing  Government,  the  Parliament 
passed  an  Act  (Dec.  31,)  which  restricted  the  authority  of  the 
Regent  to  one  year.  The  Prince  Regent  submitted  to  these 
modifications.  He  exercised  the  regency  at  first  with  a  limited 
power ;  but,  after  the  year  1812,  when  the  prospects  of  his  Ma- 
jesty's recovery  were  considerably  diminished,  he  continued  to 
exercise  the  Royal  authority  until  his  father's  death,  which  hap- 
pened January  29,  1820,  when  the  Prince  then  assumed  the 
title  of  George  IV.  The  Regent  found  the  kingdom  at  war  with 
Russia  and  Sweden  ;  but  it  was  only  in  appearance,  and  without 
effective  hostilities.  Lord  Castlereagh,  who,  since  the  year 
1812,  had  been  at  the  head  of  foreign  affairs,  listened  with  eager- 
ness to  the  first  advances  which  these  two  powers  made  towards 
a  mutual  accommodation.  Peace  was  signed  at  Orebro  (July 
12,)  first  with  Sweden,  and  a  few  days  after  with  Russia.  The 
former,  in  indirect  terms,  abandoned  the  principles  of  the  armed 
neutrality  of  the  North.  We  shall  have  occasion  hereafter  to 
revert  to  the  stipulations  of  the  treaty  signed  with  Russia. 

She  was  now  assailed  by  a  new  enemy.  A  misunderstand- 
ing had  existed  for  years,  between  Great  Britain  and  the  United 
States  of  America,  in  consequence  of  the  various  restrictions 
she  had  imposed  upon  the  commerce  of  Neutrals,  the  humilia- 
ting conditions  to  which  she  wished  to  subject  it,  and  the  im- 
pressment of  seamen.  The  Government  of  the  United  States 
had  sought  by  various  retaliatory  measures,  to  operate  upon  her 
interests  and  induce  her  to  abandon  her  system  of  arbitrary  do- 
minion over  the  great  highway  of  nations.  From  1806  to  1812 
the  pacific  disposition  of  the  American  Government  was  mani- 
fested by  the  several  expedients  of  Non-Importation^  Embargo, 
and  Non- Inter  course^  to  which  they  had  resorted,  to  prevent  an 
open  rupture,  but  as  none  of  these  resulted  in  an  acknowledg- 
ment of  her  rights  on  the  part  of  Great  Britain,  an  appeal  was 
made  at  last  to  the  Ultima  ratio  Regum.  On  the  18th  of  June, 
1812,  an  Act  of  Congress  was  passed,  declaring  War  against 
Great  Britain ;  the  reasons  for  this  measure,  as  stated  in  the 
President's  manifesto,  were  "  The  impressment  of  American 
seamen  by  the  British,  the  blockade  of  her  enemies'  ports  sup 


PERIOD  IX.     A.  D.  1810—1815.  293 

ported  by  no  adequate  force,  in  consequence  of  which  the  Ame- 
rican commerce  had  been  plundered  in  every  sea,  and  the 
British  Orders  in  Council." 

The  remoteness  of  the  two  contending  nations  from  each 
other,  rendered  it  impossible  for  them  to  bring  together  great 
armies  to  meet  in  a  general  conflict.  On  the  one  side,  the  Ca- 
nadas  were  attacked  by  the  Americans  in  many  points  with 
various  success,  and  on  the  other,  the  cities  and  settlements 
along  the  coast  of  the  Atlantic,  were  subjected  to  constant  an- 
noyance and  depredation  from  the  British  maritime  forces.  In 
acts  of  hostility  of  this  kind,  and  in  naval  combats,  the  war 
was  continued  for  nearly  three  years,  during  which  abundant 
proofs  were  given  that  the  veteran  forces  of  Great  Britain  could 
claim  no  other  superiority,  than  that  of  experience,  either  in 
officers  or  soldiers,  to  her  enemy.  Many  of  the  land,  and  all 
the  sea  battles  were  fought  with  great  skill  and  bravery,  and 
gallantry  by  the  Americans.  The  last  important  occurrence  of 
the  war,  was  the  battle  of  New  Orleans,  where  the  American 
forces,  under  the  command  of  their  heroic  leader  General  Jack- 
son, gained  a  brilliant  victory. 

The  situation  of  Europe  was  now  so  entirely  changed,  that 
che  grievances  of  which  America  had  complained,  and  for  the 
redress  of  which  she  had  fought,  must  naturally  cease,  and  as 
neither  party  deemed  it  expedient  to  continue  the  war  for  ab- 
stract rights,  a  peace  was  settled  at  Ghent,  between  the  pleni- 
potentiaries of  the  two  nations,  Dec.  24th,  1814,  which  restored 
friendship  and  amity,  without  settling  any  of  the  great  points  in 
dispute  which  had  induced  a  resort  to  arms. 

The  financial  system  of  Great  Britain  underwent  an  essen- 
tial alteration,  by  the  adoption  of  a  plan  presented  by  Mr.  Van- 
sittart.  Chancellor  of  the  Exchequer,  introducing  certain  modi- 
fications relative  to  the  accumulation  of  the  sinking  fund.  The 
expenditure  of  the  government  in  1815,  amounted  to  77,337,475^. 
sterling,  of  which  Ireland  cost  8,651,335^.  sterling.  The  inter- 
est of  the  national  debt  amounted  t#  36,607, 128Z.  sterling,  of 
which  13,182,510Z.  were  applied  to  the  sinking  fund.  Great 
Britain  paid  to  the  States  of  the  Continent,  in  1813,  11,400,000Z. 
sterling,  under  the  name  of  subsidies  ;  24,107  ships,  and 
105,030  seamen,  were  employed  in  commerce.  In  1814,  these 
numbers  were  augmented  one- seventh  more.  At  this  latter  pe- 
riod, their  navy  consisted  of  1044  ships  of  war,  100,000  sailors, 
and  32,600  marines ;  the  land  forces  amounted  to  302,490  men, 
including  63,000  militia. 

Holland,  and  the  other  powers  which  had  anciently  formed 
the  Republic  of  the  United  Provinces,  after  having  been  for 

VOL.  n.  25  "^ 


284  CHAPTER  XII. 

two  years  united  to  France,  resumed  once  more  their  national 
mdependence.  After  the  battle  of  Leipsic,  when  the  corps  ot 
Generals  Bulow  and  Winzingerofle  approached  that  country, 
ihe  partisans  of  the  Prince  of  Orange  at  the  Hague,  with  M.  de 
Hogendorps  at  their  head,  mounted  the  ancient  cockade,  estab- 
lished a  provisional  government  (Nov.  17,  1813,)  and  invited  the 
heir  of  the  last  Stadtholder  to  return  and  place  himself  at  the  head 
of  the  government.  The  French  troops,  finding  themselves  too 
weak  to  defend  the  country  at  once  against  the  allies  and 
against  the  inhabitants,  quietly  took  their  departure.  The 
Prince  of  Orange  having  arrived  at  Amsterdam  (Dec.  1,)  was 
proclaimed  Sovereign  Prince  of  the  Low  Countries  ;  but  he  ac- 
cepted that  dignity,  on  the  condition  that  his  power  should  be 
limited  by  a  constitution  ;  a  plan  of  which  he  caused  to  be 
drawn  up,  which  was  adopted  and  sworn  to  in  an  assembly  of 
the  Representatives. 

During  the  sojourn  of  the  allied  sovereigns  in  England,  it 
was  agreed,  that  in  order  to  oppose  a  barrier  to  France  on  the 
side  of  the  North,  Holland  and  Belgium  should  be  united  under 
the  same  government.  A  treaty,  concluded  at  the  same  time 
'in  London  (Aug.  13,  1814,)  restored  to  the  Dutch  all  their  an- 
cient colonies,  with  the  exception  of  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope, 
Essequibo,  Berbice,  and  Demarara.  According  to  the  regula- 
tions of  the  treaty  of  Vienna,  the  bishopric  of  Liege,  and  the 
dutchy  of  Luxemburg  were  ceded  to  the  sovereign  prince,  on 
condition  that  he  should  make  a  part  of  the  Germanic  Con- 
federation. It  was  at  this  time  that  he  received  the  title  of  King 
of  the  Netherlands.  By  the  second  treaty  of  Paris,  this  new 
kingdom  obtained  a  slight  increase  of  territory,  and  a  sum  of 
sixty  millions  of  francs,  for  constructing  a  line  of  fortresses. 
The  superficial  extent  of  that  kingdom,  with  the  dutchy  of  Lux- 
emburg, amounted  to  1164  German  square  miles,  with  a  popu- 
lation of  5,460,000  souls  ;  besides  the  population  of  its  colonies, 
amounting  to  1,726,000  inhabitants. 

Switzerland  vainly  flattai-ed  herself,  when  the  allies  approach- 
ed the  Rhine,  about  the  end  of  1813,  that  they  would  grant 
her  the  privilege  of  neutrality.  The  allied  troops  had  to  tra- 
verse the  territory  of  the  Confederacy,  in  order  to  enter  France. 
The  public  opinion  then  declared  itself,  by  annulling  the  Act 
of  Mediation  which  united  Switzerland  to  France  ;  but  this 
opinion  was  not  unanimous  as  to  the  future  constitution  of  the 
country.  Of  the  thirteen  ancient  cantons,  eight  concluded  a 
Confederation,  on  the  principle  which  granted  an  equality  of 
rights  to  every  component  part  of  the  union  ;  and  to  this  the 
new  cantons  gave  in  their  adherence.     Berne,  Friburg,  and 


PERIOD  IX.     A.  D.  1810 — 1815.  296 

Underwalden,  refused  to  take  a  part  in  it.  The  Grisons  re- 
established their  ancient  fomi  of  government.  The  interven- 
tion of  foreign  powers  quashed  the  civil  war  with  which  that 
country  was  threatened  ;  and,  after  many  difficulties,  a  new  Con- 
federation of  the  nineteen  cantons  was  signed  at  Zurich  (Sept- 
8,  1814.)  There  still  remained,  however,  several  litigated 
points  to  be  decided,  which  were  settled  by  the  Congress  of  Vi- 
enna, who  declared  that  the  perpetual  neutrality  of  Switzerland 
should  be  acknowledged  by  all  the  other  powers  ;  and  that  the 
Valais,  the  territory  of  Geneva,  and  the  principality  of  Neuf- 
chatel,  should  make  a  part  of  the  Confederation,  as  three  addi- 
tional cantons.  The  Swiss  States  having  acceded  to  this  de- 
claration (May  27,  1815,)  it  was  renewed,  confirmed,  and 
sanctioned  by  the  Allied  Powers,  in  a  second  declaration  signed 
at  Paris  (Nov.  20.) 

In  consequence  of  a  convention  concluded  at  Turin  with 
Prince  Borghese,  Governor-General  of  the  French  provinces 
beyond  the  Alps,  Field-Marshal  Bellegarde  had  taken  posses- 
sion of  Piedmont  in  the  name  of  the  King  of  Sardinia.  Soon 
after,  Victor  Emanuel  took  the  reins  of  government  into  his 
own  hands.  By  the  first  peace  of  Paris,  he  recovered  Nice, 
and  about  two-thirds  of  Savoy.  A  secret  article  of  that  treaty 
secured  him  the  possession  of  the  State  of  Genoa,  which  was 
confirmed  by  the  treaty  of  Vienna ;  but  he  ceded  to  the  canton 
of  Geneva,  certain  districts  in  Savoy.  The  second  peace  of 
Paris  restored  him  that  part  of  the  province  which  had  been 
given  to  France  in  1814.  The  Sardinian  monarchy  thus  com- 
prehended an  extent  of  1277  German  square  miles,  with  3,700,000 
inhabitants. 

The  convention  of  Fontainbleau  had  disposed  of  the  dutchies 
of  Placentia,  Parma  and  Guastalla,  in  favour  of  the  Archdutchess 
Maria  Louisa,  and  her  son  Napoleon.  This  disposition  w^as 
keenly  opposed  at  Vienna  by  the  House  of  Bourbon,  who  es- 
poused the  interest  of  the  young  King  of  Etruria,  the  lawful 
heir  to  these  estates.  Nevertheless  the  Congress  of  Vienna  ad- 
judged the  States  of  Parma  to  the  Archdutchess,  without  making 
mention  of  her  son,  or  deciding  the  question  as  to  their  rever- 
sion ;  a  point  which  was  not  determined  till  the  treaty  of  Paris 
of  June  10,  1817,  between  Austria  and  Spain.  After  the  death 
of  the  Archdutchess,  the  States  of  Parma  are  to  pass  to  the 
Queen-Dowager  of  Etruria  and  her  son.  They  contain  about 
102  German  square  miles,  and  380,000  inhabitants. 

The  Archduke  Francis,  the  heir  of  Hercules  III.,  the  last 
Duke  of  Modena  of  the  House  of  Este,  was  restored  to  the 
dutchy  of  Modena  and  its  appurtenances,  about  the  beginning 


296  CHAPTER  xn. 

of  1814.  The  whole  comprehends  a  surface  of  96  German 
square  miles,  with  388,000  inhabitants. 

According  to  an  article  of  the  treaty  of  Vienna,  Lucca,  un- 
der the  title  of  a  dutchy,.  was  given  up,  not  to  the  young  King 
of  Etruria,  the  lawful  heir  of  the  States  of  Parma,  but  to  his 
mother,  and  her  descendants  in  the  male  line.  Besides,  the 
Emperor  and  the  Grand  Duke  of  Tuscany  were  bound  to  pay 
her  a  supplementary  annuity  of  500,000  francs  until  the  death 
of  the  Archdutchess  Maria  Louisa,  when  the  Dutchess  of  Lucca, 
or  her  heirs,  are  to  have  the  States  of  Parma ;  and  the  dutchy 
of  Lucca  is  to  devolve  to  the  Grand  Duke  of  Tuscany,  on  con- 
dition of  ceding  to  the  Duke  of  Modena  certain  districts  con- 
tiguous to  his  estates.  The  dutchy  of  Lucca  is  the  most  popu- 
lous country  in  Europe.  It  contains  about  137,500  inhabitants 
within  19i  German  square  miles. 

The  grand  dutchy  of  Tuscany,  which  Murat's  troops  had  oc- 
cupied about  the  beginning  of  the  year  1814,  was  restored  to 
its  lawful  sovereign,  the  Archduke  Ferdinand  IIL  (May  1,) 
who  then  gave  up  the  Principality  of  Wurtzburg  to  the  King  of 
Bavaria.  By  the  treaty  of  Vienna,  that  prince  obtained  the 
State  of  Presidi,  part  of  the  island  of  Elba,  and  the  Imperial 
fiefs  included  in  these  States  ;  containing  395  German  square 
miles,  with  a  population  of  1,178,000  souls.  The  property  of 
Piombino  was  restored  to  the  family  of  Buoncompagni,  whom 
Bonaparte  had  dispossessed.  The  Grand  Duke  is  to  succeed 
to  the  dutchy  of  Lucca  ;  but  he  must  then  give  up  his  territo- 
ries in  Bohemia  to  his  brother  the  Emperor,  which  are  very 
considerable,  and  destined  for  the  young  Duke  of  Reichstadt, 
son  of  the  Archdutchess  Maria  Louisa. 

Bonaparte  having  found  it  impossible  to  overcome  the  per- 
severance of  Pius  VII.,  had  set  him  at  liberty  about  the  begin- 
ning of  the  year  1814.  The  Sovereign  Pontiff  returned  to  his 
Estates  amidst  the  general  acclamations  of  the  people,  and  re- 
stored every  thing  to  the  footing  in  which  they  had  been  before 
the  usurpation  of  the  French.  Nobody  was  molested  on  the  score 
of  his  political  conduct.  The  Order  of  the  Jesuits,  suppressed  inr 
1772,  was  restored  by  a  Bull,  as  a  necessary  barrier  to  oppose 
the  doctrines  of  the  Revolution.  The  Congress  of  Vienna  re- 
stored to  the  Sovereign  Pontiff  the  Marches  and  Legatines, 
with  the  exception  of  a  portion  of  territory  situated  to  the  north 
of  the  Po,  which  was  annexed  to  the  kingdom  of  Venetian 
Lombardy.  The  Ecclesiastical  States  at  present  contain  a  sur- 
face of  714  German  square  miles,  and  a  population  of  2,424,150. 

The  extravagant  conduct  of  Murat,  promoted  the  restoration 
of  the  Bourbons  to  the  throne  of  Naples.     This  was  effected 


PERIOD  IX.     A.  D.  1810—1815.  297 

by  the  expedition  which  Austria  had  despatched  in  1815  against 
Murat,  in  consequence  of  the  alliance  offensive  and  defensive 
which  that  Court  had  concluded  at  Vienna  with  Ferdinand  IV. 
(April  29,  1815,)  who  made  his  entry  into  Naples  on  the  17th 
June.  A  short  time  after,  Murat,  at  the  head  of  a  small  band 
of  adventurers,  thought  of  imitating  the  example  of  his  brother- 
in-law.  He  landed  at  Pizzo,  in  Calabria  (Oct.  9,)  where  he 
hoped  to  be  welcomed  by  his  former  adherents  ;  but  the  peasantry 
combined  against  him ;  he  was  arrested,  tried  by  a  court-martial, 
and  shot  (Oct.  10.)  The  kingdom  of  the  Two  Sicilies  has  an  ex- 
tent of  2,034  German  square  miles,  and  6,600,000  inhabitants. 

After  Ferdinand  IV.  had  retired  into  Sicily,  that  Island  was 
put  under  the  protection  of  the  English,  who  had  there  an  army 
of  15,000  men,  with  a  considerable  fleet.  General  Lord  Ben- 
tinck,  who  commanded  the  English  troops,  used  all  his  influence 
to  introduce  the  British  constitution  into  that  island.  The  Queen, 
who  was  at  the  head  of  the  opposite  party,  was  obliged  to  leave 
her  family.  From  that  moment  the  English  remained  masters 
of  Palermo.  But  after  the  first  peace  of  Paris,  Ferdinand  IV. 
resumed  the  reins  of  government;  and  before  embarking  for 
Naples,  he  annulled  the  constitution  of  1812. 

Corfu,  the  only  one  of  the  Ionian  islands  which  was  not  yet 
in  the  power  of  the  English,  was  given  up  to  them  by  the  Con- 
vention of  Paris  (April  23, 1814.)  The  fate  of  these  islands  was 
decided  by  a  treaty  concluded  at  the  same  place  between  Aus- 
tria and  Great  Britain,  Prussia  and  Russia.  They  were  com- 
bined into  a  free  and  independent  State  (Nov.  5,)  under  the 
name  of  the  United  States  of  the  Ionian  Islands,  and  placed 
under  the  immediate  and  exclusive  protection  of  Great  Britain. 

By  the  events  of  the  years  1813  and  1814,  the  House  of  Aus- 
tria gained  possession  of  all  that  belonged  to  her  in  Italy,  either 
before  or  in  consequence  of  the  peace  of  Campo  Formio.  A 
small  portion  of  Ferrara  to  the  north  of  the  Po  was  ceded  to  her, 
as  were  the  Valteline,  Bormio,  Chiavenna,  and  the  ancient  re- 
public of  Ragusa.  The  Emperor  constituted  all  these  posses- 
sions into  a  separate  and  particular  State,  under  the  title  of  the 
Kingdom  of  Venetian  Lombardy.  Independently  of  these,  Aus- 
tria recovered  the  Illyrian  provinces,  of  which  she  also  formed  a 
distinct  kingdom.  By  a  treaty  signed  at  Vienna  with  Russia, 
she  likewise  gained  possession  of  the  part  of  eastern  Galicia 
which  she  had  ceded  to  Alexander  in  1809,  and  the  exclusive 
property  of  Wieliczka,  which  was  then  divided  between  her  and 
the  dutchy  of  Warsaw.  The  Austrian  monarchy,  in  its  present 
state,  contains  a  surface  of  12,000  German  square  miles,  and  a 
population  of  twenty-nine  millions. 


298  CHAPTER   XU. 

It  was  a  more  difficult  matter  to  reorganize  the  monarchy  t . 
Prussia.  We  have  mentioned  the  negotiations,  in  consequence 
of  which  she  acquired  about  a  half  of  the  kingdom  of  Saxony. 
The  Congress  of  Vienna  restored  to  her  not  only  a  part  of  an- 
cient Prussia,  now  called  the  Grand  Dutchy  of  Posnania,  and 
all  the  other  possessions  which  she  had  lost  by  the  convention 
of  Vienna,  (Dec.  15,  1805,)  and  the  peace  of  Tilsit  (with  the  ex- 
ception of  Bialystock,  Anspach,  Baireuth,  Westfriesland,  and 
Hildesheim,)  but  also  a  considerable  territory  on  the  left  bank  of 
the  Rhine,  the  Grand  Dutchy  of  Berg,  the  Dutchy  of  Westpha 
lia,  Swedish  Pomerania,  and  the  sovereignty  of  several  other 
principalities  and  counties.  These  territorial  arrangements 
were  not  concluded  till  1819.  The  Prussian  monarchy  contains 
a  surface  of  4882  German  square  miles,  and  a  population  of 
nearly  11  millions. 

The  sovereign  princes  and  free  cities  of  Germany  were  uni- 
ted by  an  Act  signed  at  Vienna,  under  the  name  of  the  Germanic 
Confederation.  All  the  members  of  the  Confederacy  enjoy 
full  sovereignty,  and  all  take  part  in.  the  deliberations  of  the 
Diet  in  matters  relating  to  the  general  interests  of  the  Union. 
The  thirty-nine  members,  however,  in  ordinary  cases,  have  only 
seventeen  votes ;  eleven  of  the  States  have  each  a  vote,  while 
six  collective  votes  belong  to  the  other  twenty-eight.  Never- 
theless, in  constitutional  questions,  the  thirty-nine  members  have 
in  all  seventy  votes  ;  each  State  having  at  least  one,  and  several 
of  them  two,  three,  and  four  votes.  The  members  have  the 
right  of  concluding  every  kind  of  alliance,  provided  these  are 
not  directed  against  the  safety  of  the  Union  or  of  its  constituent 
members.  The  equality  of  civil  and  religious  rights  was  secured 
to  all  who  professed  the  Christian  religion. 

Various  States,  forming  the  Germanic  Confederation,  under- 
went certain  changes  in  their  territorial  possessions ;  but  the 
negotiations  by  which  they  were  definitively  settled  did  not  take 
place  till  1819.  The  kingdom  of  Bavaria  received  indemnity 
for  the  various  restitutions  which  had  been  made  to  the  Court 
of  Vienna.  Its  superficial  extent  amounts  to  1505  square  miles, 
and  3,300,000  inhabitants.  The  grand  dutchy  of  Hesse-Darm- 
stadt obtained  considerable  augmentations  on  the  left  bank  of 
the  Rhine,  and  has  a  surface  of  214  German  square  miles,  and 
six  hundred  thousand  inhabitants.  The  Grand  Duke  of  Olden- 
burg, the  Duke  of  Saxe  Cobourg,  the  Landgrave  of  Hesse- 
Homberg,  and  the  House  of  Orange-Nassau,  obtained  territorial 
indemnities  on  the  Rhine.  The  Elector  of  Hesse-Cassel  obtained 
the  g^and  dutchy  of  Fulda ;  his  dominions  consisted  of  200  Ger- 
man square  miles,  and  540,000  inhabitants.      The  King  of 


PERIOD  IX.     A.  D.  15510—1815.  299 

Hanover  lost  Lauenburg,  and  obtained  Hildesheim  and  West- 
fresland.  That  kingdom  contains  700  German  square  miles, 
and  one  million  three  hundred  thousand  inhabitants.  The  grand 
dutchy  of  Saxc-Weimar,  with  its  additional  districts,  contains  66 
German  square  miles,  and  one  hundred  and  ninety-three  thou- 
sand inhabitants. 

Such  is  the  composition  of  the  German  Confederation,  an 
association  which  was  formed,  as  we  have  mentioned,  by  the 
act  of  June  8th  1815.  In  1820,  it  was  declared  a  fundamental 
law  of  the  Union. 

As  Russia  and  Austria  were  not  likely  to  come  to  an  agree- 
ment, as  to  the  possession  of  the  city  of  Cracow,  the  former  de- 
manding it  as  an  appurtenance  of  the  ci-divant  dutchy  of  Warsaw, 
while  the  latter  claimed  it  as  having  been  deprived  of  it  by  the 
peace  of  Schoenbrun ;  it  was  agreed  by  the  treaty  of  Vienna 
(May  13,  1815,)  that  that  city,  with  the  territory  which  had  been 
assigned  it,  should  form  an  independent  and  neutral  Republic, 
under  the  protection  of  Austria,  Prussia,  and  Russia.  Besides 
the  city  of  Cracow,  a  district  containing  eight  or  nine  thousand 
inhabitants  was  dismembered  from  the  dutchy  of  Warsaw,  which 
was  conferred  on  Prussia,  under  the  title  of  the  Grand  Dutchy 
of  Posnania.  The  remainder  was  united  to  the  Empire  of  Rus- 
sia as  a  distinct  State,  under  the  name  of  the  Kingdom  of  Poland, 
having  its  own  constitution  and  a  separate  administration.  That 
State  contained  2215  German  square  miles,  with  a  population 
of  two  millions  and  a  half. 

We  have  already  observed,  by  what  fatal  mischance  Denmark 
had  been  dragged  into  the  war  of  Napoleon  against  the  allies. 
The  treaty  of  peace  at  Kiel,  (Jan.  14,  1814,)  deprived  her  of 
Norway,  in  lieu  of  which  she  obtained  the  paltry  compensation 
of  Swedish  Pomerania  ;  and  even  that  acquisition  proved  nuga- 
tory. According  to  arrangements  agreed  on  at  Vienna  with 
Prussia,  the  King  of  Denmark  accepted  the  dutchy  of  Lauen- 
burg instead  of  Pomerania,  which  was  abandoned  to  Prussia. 
The  Danish  monarchy  thus  lost  one-third  of  its  subjects,  and 
was  reduced  to  an  extent,  including  Iceland,  of  2420  German 
square  miles,  and  1,700,000  inhabitants. 

The  Norwegians,  who  cherished  a  national  hatred  against  the 
Swedes,  refused  to  submit  to  their  destiny.  They  chose  for  their 
King  Prince  Christian  Frederic,  who  was  their  Governor-Gene- 
ral and  heir  to  the  throne  of  Denmark  (May  17, 1814,)  and  they 
published  a  representative  constitution  at  Eidswold.  The  King, 
and  the  Prince  Royal  of  Sweden,  marched  at  the  head  of  an 
army  to  reduce  them  to  submission.  After  some  hostile  manoeu- 
vres, the  Prince  of  Denmark  resigned  the  sovereignty,  by  a  con- 


300  CHAPTER  XII. 

vention  which  was  si^ed  at  Moss  (Aug.  16.)  The  Nat'OBtd 
Assembly  convened  at  Christiana  (Oct.  20,)  decreed  the  union 
oi  Norway  to  the  crown  of  Sweden,  as  an  independent  kingdom, 
\iiider  one  monarchy,  and  with  a  representative  constitution. 
They  adopted  the  order  of  succession  as  established  in  Sweden 
in  1809.  Charles  XIII.  was  proclaimed  King  of  Norway  (Nov, 
4 ;}  and  the  relations  between  Sweden  and  Norway  were  sealed, 
by  an  act  signed  between  the  two  kingdoms  (July  31, 1815.)  By 
the  treaty  of  Vienna,  Sweden  ceded  to  Prussia  her  part  of  Po- 
merania,  and  thus  was  separated  from  Germany,  of  which  she 
had  been  a  constituent  member  since  the  time  of  Gustavus  Adol- 
phus.  The  Swedish  monarchy  contains  an  extent  of  16,150 
German  square  miles,  with  3,330,000  inhabitants. 

Russia  acted  so  conspicuous  a  part  during  the  period  of  which 
we  have  spoken,  that  we  can  scarcely  mention  any  event  of 
general  interest  in  which  she  was  not  concerned.  She  was  at 
war  with  Great  Britain,  Turkey,  and  Persia,  when  Bonaparte 
commenced  hostilities  against  her  in  1811.  The  Russians  acted 
on  the  defensive  against  the  Turks  ;  Prince  Kutusoff,  who  had 
the  command,  having  been  obliged  to  send  five  divisions  of  his 
army  into  Poland,  caused  Silistria  to  be  demolished,  preserving 
only  Rudschuk  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Danube.  The  indolent 
Jusuff  Pacha,  who  had  never  stirred  from  his  camp  at  Schumla 
was  replaced  by  Achmet  Aga,  an  active  and  enterprising  Gene- 
ral, who  sent  for  a  reinforcement  of  35,000  men,  mostly  composed 
of  excellent  cavalry,  and  supported  by  a  formidable  artillery 
served  by  French  officers.  Achmet  marched  against  Kutusoff 
and  their  first  encounter  took  place  two  leagues  from  Rudschuk 
(July  4.)  Eight  thousand  Russians,  who  were  opposed  to  the 
vanguard  of  the  Ottomans,  under  the  command  of  Ali  Pacha, 
were  driven  back  to  their  entrenchments.  Two  days  after  the 
Grand  Vizier  attacked  the  Russian  entrenchments  and  dislodged 
the  troops,  who  threw  themselves  into  Rudschuk.  It  was  chiefly 
the  infantry  of  the  Russians  who  suffered  in  that  battle,  owing 
to  the  superiority  of  the  Turkish  cavalry,  who  would  have  cut 
them  to  pieces,  but  for  a  bold  manoeuvre  of  Count  Langeron, 
who  sallied  from  Rudschuk,  at  the  head  of  the  garrison,  and  pro- 
tected the  fugitives.  The  Grand  Vizier  advanced  under  the 
very  cannon  of  the  fortress.  He  attempted  three  times  in  one 
day  to  carry  it  by  force,  but  was  repulsed  each  time  (July  9.) 
During  the  following  night  the  Russians  quitted  Rudschuk  and 
passed  the  Danube.  But  the  Turks  having  got  intelligence, 
entered  the  town,  and  prevented  them  from  carrying  off  all  tlieir 
artillery  and  ammunition. 

The  army  of  Kutusoff,  weakened  by  disease  was  unable  to 


pehtod  IX.     A.  D.  ISIO— 1S15.  HOI 

Drevent  the  Grand  Vizier  from  taking-  possession  of  tlie  islands 
of  the  Danube,  where  they  constructed  bridges,  by  means  of 
which  they  made  frequent  incursions  into  Wallachia,  A  body 
of  lr>,000  troops,  comm.anded  by  Ismael  Bey,  took  up  the  same 
post  on  the  right  bank,  so  that  the  Grand  Vizier  passed  the  river 
at  the  head  of  the  main  body  of  the  forces  (Aug,  3.)  But  the 
face  of  affairs  soon  changed.  General  Ouwaroff  havinsr  brouoht 
a  remforcement  of  50,000  men  to  Kutusoff,  the  latter  detached 
IMarkoff,  with  a  considerable  body,  who  passed  to  the  right  bank 
of  the  Danube,  marched  in  all  haste  against  the  Turkish  reserve 
before  Rudschuk,  seized  their  camp,  and  thus  cut  off  the  retreat 
of  the  Grand  Vizier.  The  latter  found  means  to  enter  Rudscliuk 
in  a  small  bark,  leaving  his  army  in  Wallachia,  under  the  f-oni- 
mand  of  Seraskier  Tchaban-Oglou,  who  was  blockaded  at  Slo- 
bosia  by  Kutusoff,  and  after  being  reduced  to  25,000  men,  they 
were  obliged  to  capitulate  and  lay  down  their  arms  (Dec.  8.) 

The  Grand  Vizier  then  demanded  a  suspension  of  arms, 
which  was  signed  at  Guirdesov.  Negotiations  were  opened  ai 
Bucharest,  but  the  Turks  refused  for  a  long  time  to  make  the 
smallest  cession  of  territory.  At  length  the  mediation  of  Eng- 
land, Sweden,  and  Russia,  overcame  the  obstinacy  of  the  Divan, 
and  peace  was  signed  (May  28,  1812.)  The  Porte  ceded  to 
Russia  about  one-third  of  Moldavia,  as  far  as  the  Pruth,  the  for- 
tresses of  Choczin  and  Bender,  and  the  whole  of  Bessarabia, 
with  Ismael  and  Kilia  ;  an  amnesty  was  granted  to  the  Servians. 

Although  England  had  appeared  at  Bucharest  as  a  mediating 
power,  nevertheless  her  treaty  of  peace  with  Russia  was  not  de- 
finitively signed,  although  actual  hostilities  had  long  ceased  be- 
tween  the  two  powers.  The  treaty  was  at  length  concluded  at 
Orebro  (July  18,)  the  stipulations  of  which  are  not  all  known. 
The  peace  with  Persia  was  signed  in  the  Russian  camp,  near 
the  river  Seiwa,  under  the  mediation  of  England,  and  confirmed 
the  following  year  at  Teflis  (Sept,  15,  1814.)  Persia  ceded  to 
Russia  Daghistan,  Shirvan,  Derbent,  and  in  general  the  whole 
western  coast  of  the  Caspian  Sea,  renounced  her  pretensions  on 
Georgia,  Imirete,  Guriel,  and  Mingrelia,  and  recognised  the  ex- 
clusive right  of  Russia  to  the  navigation  of  the  Caspian  Sea. 

At  the  Congress  of  Vienna  the  Emperor  of  Russia  had  ob- 
tained the  kingdom  of  Poland,  as  we  have  already  noticed.  In- 
dependently of  that  acquisition,  the  Russian  Empire  had  an 
extent  of  345,000  German  square  miles,  80,000  of  which  are  in 
Europe,  the  population  of  vdiich  amounts  to  thirty-eight  mil- 
lions. The  population  of  the  vv^hole  Empire  is  estimated  at  forty- 
six  millions. 

A  concurrence  of  fortunate  circumstances  has  saved  the  Otto- 

voL.  If.  26 


yj3  CHAPTER  Xtl. 

man  Empire  from  tKat  ruin  with  which  it  has  more  than  once 
been  threatened,  and  for  which  the  total  dissohition  of  social 
order  in  the  provinces  has  a  long  time  prepared  the  way.  If  u 
«iiill  survives  these  evils,  its  preservation  is  perhaps  to  be  ascn 
bed  to  that  Hoi}'  Alliance  which  has  sometimes  been  the  objeci 
of  terror  to  the  Porte,  he  having  been  persuaded  that  thai  Chris- 
tian League  was  directed  against  Mahometanism.  It  is  this 
suspicion,  the  offspring  of  ignorance  and  weakness,  which  ai  n 
recent  date  had  nearly  precipitated  him  into  imprudent  mea 
sures.  If  the  wisdom  of  his  powerful  neighbour  had  known,  m 
these  circumstances,  to  unite  his  own  glory  with  the  maintenance 
of  pul)lic  tranquillity,  of  which  Europe  stands  so  much  in  need, 
the  Porte,  enlightened  as  to  his  true  interest  by  Austria,  Great 
Britain,  and  his  other  allies,  will  feel  that  he  cannot  prolong  his 
own  existence,  except  by  substituting  the  reign  of  justice,  and 
the  principles  of  humanity,  to  despotism  and  cruehy. 


A.  U,   1S15— 1830.— FRANCE.  3U3 


CHAPTER  XIII. 

From,  the  Second  Restoration  of  the  Bourbons,  A,  D,  1815,  to 
the  Revolution  in  Poland,  A.  D.  1830. 

France  had  undergone  a  complete  chan:^e  since  the  Revolu- 
tion, which  the  Bourbons,  on  their  return  could  not  understand. 
Their  unfitness  to  reign  over  this  people,  was  immediately  per- 
ceived, and  gave  rise  to  a  prevalent  saying,  that  "  the  Bourbons, 
in  their  misfortunes,  had  learned  nothing,  and  had  forgotten 
nothing." 

The  open  acknowledgment,  made  by  Louis  XVIII.,  that  he 
owed  his  throne  to  the  Prince  Regent  of  England,  was  a  dis- 
honor,  and  a  source  of  deep  mortification,  to  the  pride  of  France ; 
and  the  country  was  farther  humiliated,  by  the  presence  of  the 
Allied  troops,  occupying  two-thirds  of  its  territory  to  enforce 
tranquillity. 

By  the  treaty  of  Paris,*  concluded  November  20th,  1815,  be- 
tween Louis  XVIII.  and  the  three  Allied  powers,  France  was  to 
pay  700  million  francs,  give  up  seventeen  citadels  for  a  pe- 
riod of  three  to  five  years,  and  support  one  himdred  and  fifly 
thousand  foreign  troops,  within  her  territories  ;  besides  satisfy- 
ing all  public  and  private  claims,  to  the  countries  belonging  to 
the  Allied  sovereigns,  and  restoring  the  productions  in  the  arts, 
and  the  treasures  of  literature,  with  which  as  spoils,  Napoleon 
had  enriched  the  capital.  This  last  requisition  was  enforced, 
while  the  Allied  troops  were  in  possession  of  Paris. 

Richlieu,  the  new  minister,  signed  this  treaty  in  Septemiber, 
1815,  which  occasioned  great  dissatisfaction  to  the  Fre.nch  na- 
tion. The  King  opened  the  new  chamber,  November,  4,  1810, 
with  a  speech  which  disclosed  the  unfavorable  condition  of 
France. 

February  5,  1817.  The  liberals  and  independents  obtained 
the  law  of  election  ;  and,  on  March  6,  1818,  the  recruiting  law  ; 
but  were  not  successful  in  their  attacks  on  the  laws  of  excep- 
tion,  which  prevented  the  complete  operation  of  the  charter. 
The  machinations  of  the  ultras,  led  to  troubles  in  Grenoble,  in 

*  See  pages  288  ^d  289,  vol.  u. 


304  CliAl'TEK  Xiil. 

1816,  and  in  Lyons  1817.  July,  1818,  their  intrigues  were 
discovered,  which  were  nothing  less  than  to  engage  the  Allies 
to  assist  them  in  abolishing  the  charter.  The  ministry  then 
incHned  towards  the  liberals,  and  national  party.  A  loan  of  24 
millions  was  required  to  eiFect  the  evacuation  of  the  Allied  troops 
stationed  in  France,  in  the  autumn  of  1818,  which  was  deter- 
mined upon  by  the  congress  of  Aix-la-Chapelle,  October  9, 
1818  ;  and  for  the  payment  of  foreign  claims  for  the  expenses 
of  the  warj  and  claims  of  individuals.  Here  wad  a  successful 
exhibition  of  French  diplomacy  :  in  these  settlements,  in  the 
matter  of  liquidations,  the  payment  of  the  debt  acknowledged  by 
the  treaty  of  1815,  reduced  from  1600  to  1390  millions  was 
postponed  till  tlie  year  1818 — when,  in  payment  of  these  1390 
millions,  a  rent  of  16,040,000  francs,  equivalent  to  a  capital  of 
275  million  francs,  was  accepted.  This  was  about  a  seventh 
part  of  the  lawful  claim  ;  and  a  rent  of  three  millions  was  grant- 
ed, in  a  separate  article,  to  satisfy  the  claims  of  British  subjects. 
The  remaininsr  280  millions  were  farther  reduced  at  Aix-la-Cha- 

O 

pelle,  to  265  million  francs. 

November  12.  France  was  admitted  into  the  Quadruple  alii 
ance  of  the  great  European  powers.  The  prime  minister.  Rich- 
lieu,  declared  himself  against  the  existing  mode  of  election,  and 
ajrainst  the  operation  of  the  constitutional  system,  which  led  to 
a  division  in  the  ministry,  v/hen  in  December,  Decazes  was  vic- 
torious over  the  ultras,  in  the  law  of  election,  and  liberal  princi- 
ples. A  new  ministry  uas  named  by  Louis  XVIII.  the  third 
since  1815.  The  Marquis  Dessoles  was  made  president  of  the 
ministerial  council,  which  was  overthrown,  Nov.  19, 1819  ;  Des- 
soles, St.  Cyr  and  Louis,  the  defenders  of  the  charter,  resigned. 
Decazes  now  became  prime  minister.  In  the  controversy  res- 
pecting the  construction  of  the  charter  and  the  censorship  of  the 
press,  Benjamin  Constant,  Comte,  and  Dunoyer,  were  writers 
for  the  liberals ;  Chateaubriand,  Bonald,  and  Fievee  for  the 
ultras. 

The  session  from  1819  to  1820,  v/as  one  of  continued  conflict 
of  the  most  violent  kind;  the  influence  of  the  royalists  succeed- 
ed in  excluding  Gregoire  from  the  chamber  :  Decazes,  presi- 
dent of  the  ministry,  attempted  to  follow  a  moderate  course,  by 
several  judicious  bills.  In  the  midst  of  these  agitations,  Febru- 
ary 13,  1820,  the  Duke  of  Berry  was  assassinated.  A  new  law 
of  election,  and  two  of  exception  were  lost,  and  Decazes  resign- 
ed. A  fifth  ministry,  with  Richlieu  as  ))resident  was  formed, 
Feb.  20,  1820.  The  royalists  gradually  increased  their  powei 
and  influence,  mainly  indebted  after  1822,  to  the  talents  of 
Villele. 


A.  D.  1815 — 1830.— FRAiSCE.  305 

Attempts  were  made  for  continuing  restrictions  of  the  press, 
till  the  close  of  the  session  of  1826,  and  to  impose  further  re?- 
irictions,  wiiich  met  with  decided  opposition,  and  ended  in  the 
resia^nation  of  the  ministry,  December  17,  1821,  when  a  sixth 
Ministry  was  formed  in  which  ultra-royalism  was  triumphant. 
The  censorship  of  the  press  ceased  February  5,  1822. 

A  conspiracy  in  favor  of  young  Napoleon,  was  discovered  in 
1821,  and  the  following  year  several  revolts  were  projected  in 
ditlerent  garrisons.  Villele,  minister  of  finance,  displayed 
great  adroitness  in  the  management  of  affairs,  and  was  appoint- 
ed president  of  the  ministry,  having  great  influence  over  j)ubhG 
opinion.  I'he  ultras  were  dissatisfied  with  his  moderation  ;  he 
is  represented  to  liave  perfectly  seen  that  France  could  no  longer 
be  governed  by  an  absolute  monarchy.  The  most  important 
events  of  tiie  session  of  1822,  were  relative  to  the  new  tariff, 
and  the  foreign  policy  in  regard  to  Greece  and  Spain.  The 
liberal  party  were  defeated  on  the  great  question,  whether 
France  should  by  force  suppress  democratic  principles  in  Spain 
On  the  28th  January,  1823,  the  King  announced  in  the  opening 
of  the  session,  the  march  of  an  army  of  100,000  French  troops 
for  Spain.  This  expedition  evinced  the  determination  of  the 
fanatic  party,  to  put  down  liberal  principles,  and  restore  Ferdi- 
nand to  despotic  pov/er.  In  this  attempt,  tliey  were  but  too  suc- 
cessful. 

A  Loan  of  100  millions  was  required  for  the  extraordinary 
expenses  of  1823.  The  Spanish  campaign  of  six  months 
tended  to  strengthen  legitimacy,  and  cost  France  207,827,000 
francs. 

In  1824,  the  estimate  of  expenditure  amounted  to  900  mil- 
lions. This  was  owing  to  the  payment  by  government  of  the 
clergy,  nov/  become  dependent  upon  the  state.  The  greatest 
efforts  were  now  made  by  the  ecclesiastics,  to  regain  for  the 
church  its  former  si^lendor,  in  spite  of  the  feelings  and  habits  of 
the  people.  They  wielded  their  immense  power,  in  the  most 
arbitrary  and  bigoted  manner  ;  but  with  all  their  zeal,  were  un- 
able to  check  the  diffusion  of  knowledge — and  so  far  from  re- 
tarding the  march  of  liberty,  they  hastened  the  ovcrthrov/  of 
despotism  and  bigotry,  and  eventually  brought  on  their  own 
downfall. 

Louis  XVIII,  died  September  16,  and  wns  succeeded  by  his 
brother,  Charles  X.  We  have  now  hastily  sketched  the  events 
during  the  reign  of  Louis  XVIIL,  enough  to  show  the  temper  of 
the  French  people,  and  the  obnoxious  measures  which  tended 
to  bring  about  a  new  revolution  in  France. 

Charles  X.  commenced  his  reign  by  a  declaration  of  his  mten- 

voL.  II.  26* 


3'Ju  CiiArTLix  XIIJ. 

tions  of  coiilirming  the  charter.  He  appointed  as  a  member  of 
the  ministerial  council,  the  Duke  d'Angouleme,  and  suppressed 
the  censorship  of  the  journals,  Sept.  29.  Appointed  tlie  Count 
de  Clermont-Tonnere,  minister  of  war.  Villele  gained  the  con- 
fidence  of  the  King,  by  his  prudent  measures,  while  Chateau- 
bi'iand  proved,  in  the  Journal  des  Debats,  (his  paper,)  a  power- 
ful and  eloquent  opponent.  In  the  session  of  lb25,  Villele  was 
triumphant :  a  bill  granting  1,000,000,000  francs  in  rents,  as  an 
indemnification  to  the  emigrants,  proved  a  source  of  great  dis- 
satisl'action  to  the  nation,  v/hich  became  opposed  to  the  course 
now  pursued.  The  civil  list  of  the  King  was  established  at 
25.000,000  francs,  annually,  for  life,  and  that  of  the  royal  fami- 
ly  at  7,000,000.  On  the  29th  May,  the  splendid  coronation  of 
Charles  X.  took  place  at  Rheims,  at  which  time  he  took  the 
oath  to  govern  according  to  the  charier.  In  the  session  of  1826, 
thirty-one  new  peers  were  created  to  strengthen  the  ministry. 

In  August,  1824,  General  Lafayette  landed  in  New  York, 
upon  an  invitation  of  James  Monroe,  President  of  the  United 
States,  and  was  received  with  the  warmest  expressions  of  grati- 
tude, a  nation  could  bestow  ;  and  passed  through  the  twenty- 
four  states  of  the  union,  with  more  than  the  splendor  of  a  tri- 
umphal procession,  rie  sailed  hence,  in  the  Brandywine,  a 
United  States  ship,  September  7,  1825,  and  arrived  at  Havre, 
where  every  demonstration  of  attach. ment  and  respect  was  shown 
him.  The  following  particulars  respecting  the  •'  Nation's  Guest," 
on  his  return  to  France,  in  1825,  cannot  fail  to  be  interesting, 
ft  shows  that  the  affectionate  and  enthusiastic  welcome  of  hin^ 
by  his  countrymen,  on  his  return  to  France,  and  portrays  the 
sullen  hatred  of  the  Bourbons  to  every  thing  that  partook  of 
liberty.  At  Rouen,  the  "  Guest  of  the  American  people,"  the 
veteran  defender  of  liberty  in  the  two  hemispheres,  was  honor- 
ed with  a  public  dinner,  accompanied  by  his  family  and  friends. 
In  the  evening,  a  great  concourse  O'f  citizens,  among  whom 
were  many  females,  repaired  to  the  house  of  M.  Cabanon,  where 
Lafayette  appeared  on  the  bnlcony,  and  the  greatest  tranquillity 
reigned.  Notwithstanding  the  crowd,  a  serenade,  given  to  the 
General,  wiis  heard  with  perfect  silence.  At  this  juncture  there 
arrived,  fi^m  two  opposite  directions,  a  detachnient  of  the  guard 
royal,  and  a  detachment  of  gendarmes.  The  former  conduct- 
ed itself  with  moderation  ;  the  latter  proceeded  to  disperse  the 
peaceable  citizens,  wliose  meeting  had  occasioned  no  distur- 
i^cUice,  and  made  a  charge  upon  the  populace,  treating  them  as 
rioters  ;  when  many  were  thrown  down  and  murdered  ;  and  the 
whole  assembly  was  put  to  flight,  by  the  sabres  and  bayonets  of 
the   gendarmes;  and  by  them  many  were  arrested.     Tojustif)r 


A.  B.   1815 1830. FRANCE.  30*7 

this  proceeding,  the  Prefect  at  Rouen  issued,  in  a  public  journal, 
■a  note,  in  which  lie  said,  "  That  the  citizens  groaned  to  see  the 
tranquilhty  menaced  by  the  presence  of  a  man  whose  sad  celeb- 
rity connects  itself  with  the  most  disastrous  period  of  the  Revo- 
lution !" 

On  the  return  of  Lafayette  to  La  Grange,  the  villagers  united 
in  a  public  festival  on  the  occasion  ;  and  addresses  were  pre- 
sented although  the  government  took  every  opportunity  to  pre- 
vent any  demonstration  of  respect  being  shown  to  him.  Not 
less  than  6,060  persons  assembled  on  this  joyous  occasion,  to 
commemorate  the  return  of  him,  whom  they  designated  the 
*'  American  Nation's  (iuest." 

The  Jesuits  commenced  prosecutions  against  two  of  the  libe- 
ral papers.  This  led  to  much  hostility  between  the  liberals  and 
the  royalists ;  and  soon  after,  a  law  against  the  Jesuits  was  at- 
tempted to  be  passed,  and  the  liberty  of  the  press  was  carried, 
April  27,  1827,  The  national  guards  of  Paris,  45,000  in  num. 
her,  were  disbanded,  a.  measure  highly  obnoxious  to  the  people. 
This  was  followed  by  a  rigorous  censorship  of  the  press,  (June 
"24,  1827,)  which  tended  still  more  to  irritate  the  state  of  public 
feeling  against  the  ministry.  The  papers  of  the  opposition  fre- 
quently appeared  with  w^iole  columns  blank. 

A  war  commenced  this  year  Avith  Algiers,  said  to  have  arisen 
from  a  controversy  respecting  a  debt  for  corn,  purchased  for  the 
French  government  in  1739.  The  ministry  dissolved  the  cham- 
ber which  had  still  three  vears  to  run.  In  the  new  chamber,  a 
majority  was  gained  by  the  liberals  ;  out  of  8,000  votes  in  Paris, 
only  1114  were  on  the  ministerial  side;  the  same  decided  result 
took  place  in  the  different  departments.  This  occasioned  great 
joy  in  Paris,  and  led  to  some  disastei^s  :  about  fifty  persons  were 
killed  by  the  gendarmes.  By  an  ordinance  of  November  5, 
1827,  seventy-six  new  peers  were  created.  Of  these  scarcely 
any,  Soult  excepted,  were  entitled  by  services,  to  the  honor. 
Three  others  were  added,  Jan.  4,  1828 — these  were  Villele, 
Peyronnet,  and  Ooi^biere. 

On  opening  the  session,  February  5,  1828,  Charles  X.  con- 
gratulated the  nation  on  the  occasion  of  the  victory  of  Navari- 
no.  In  1828,  the  French  troops  returned  from  Spain  ,*  and  in 
August,  (shortly  afterwards,)  an  expedition  was  fitted  out  for 
the  delivery  of  Greece  from  Turkish  thraldom.  The  command 
of  the  expedition  was  given  to  General  Maison.  The  number 
of  troops  amounted  to  14,000.     (^See  Revolution  in  Greece.) 

The  ap}>Gintments  announced,  August  9,  1829,  were  the  foK 
lowing :  Prince  Jules  de  Polignac,  minister  of  foreign  affaJJti 
M.  Courvoisier,  keeper  of  the  seals,  and  minister  of  juitic*. 


308  CHAFTEK  Xlli. 

Count  Bourmont,  minister  of  war;  Admiral  Rigny,  minister  of 
marine ;  Count  de  la  Bourdonnaye,  minister  of  the  interior  ; 
Baron  de  Montbel,  minister  of  ecclesiastical  affairs  and  public 
instruction ;  Count  Chabrol  de  Crousol,  minister  of  finance. 
Admiral  Rigny  declined  the  offered  port  folio,  which  was  given 
to  M.  d'Haussez,  Prefect  of  the  Gironde.  This  was  an  ultra- 
royalist  ministry.  Bourmont  had  been  a  soldier  under  Napo- 
leon, declared  for  Louis  XVIII. — again  took  office  under  Napo- 
leon, and  deserted  him  at  the  battle  of  Waterloo,  fled  to  the 
Bourbons  at  Ghent,  was  elevated  to  the  peerage,  and  entrusted 
with  the  command  of  the  army  of  occupation  in  Spain,  after  the 
return  of  the  Duke  d'Angouleme. 

Prince  Polignac  was  one  of  the  old  royalists,  and  was  early 
attached  to  Charles  X.  He,  with  his  brothers  Armand,  was 
implicated  in  Pichegru's  conspiracy,  and  received  the  pardon 
of  Napoleon.  Since  1823,  he  had  been  ambassador  at  the  British 
court,  and  his  elevation  was  said  to  have  been  through  Eng- 
lish influence,  more  especially  that  of  the  Duke  o^  Wellington. 
He  professed  a  great  fondness  for  England  ;  but  however  this 
may  be,  certain  it  is,  he  was  no  favorite  with  the  French  peo- 
ple. The  minister  of  the  interior,  La  Bourdonnaye,  had  distin- 
guished himself  for  his  violence,  and  active  measures  for  the  ul- 
tras. No  sooner  was  the  ministry  formed,  than  La  Bourdonnaye 
was  disposed  to  dissolve  the  chamber,  as  Villele  had  done  to 
secure  a  majority  ;  trusting  for  success,  to  the  activity  of  tlie 
royalists,  and  the  aid  of  the  clerg3^  When  this  hazardous 
proposition  was  rejected.  La  Bourdonnaye  resigned,  and  Polig- 
nac was  made  president  of  the  ministerial  council.  Baron  Mont- 
bel was  transferred  to  the  department  of  the  interior,  and  Count 
G.  de  Rainville  was  made  minister  of  ecclesiastical  affairs.  An 
ordinance  to  this  effect  was  issued  on  the  17th  November,  182^. 
Such  was  the  organization  of  the  ministry  at  the  end  of  that 
year. 

The  efforts  of  the  Bourbons  to  build  up  aristocracy  and  abso- 
lute monarchy,  had  failed — their  measures  having  had  an  oppo- 
site effect ;  and  the  poverty  of  the  nobles  having  impaired  their 
former  influence,  they  now  followed  instead  of  leading  the  nation. 
The  French  were  now  too  much  enlightened  to  suffer  them- 
selves to  be  deprived  of  their  privileges.  The  country  was,  at 
this  time,  in  a  state  of  prosperity.  The  struggle  that  followed, 
was  for  the  protection  of  their  liberties,  and  not  the  result  of 
suffering  and  want.  This  noble  regard  for  the  cause  of  free- 
dom, gave  new  glory  to  France,  and  to  liberty,  a  fresh  impulse 
throughout  the  world. 

1830,  March  2.     The  speech  froni_the  throne  announced  that 


A.    L,    l'61.0 l^W. FRAKCE.  SUli 

war  nad  been  commenced  willi  Algiers,  and  ended  with  these 
words  :  "  Peers  of  France,  deputies  of  the  departments,  I  do 
not  douht  your  co-operation  in  the  good  1  desire  to  do.  You 
will  repel,  with  contempt,  the  perfidious  insinuations  which  ma- 
levolence is  busy  in  propagating.  If  guilty  intrigues  should 
throw  any  obstacles  in  the  way  of  my  government,  which  I  can- 
not and  will  not  anticipate,  I  should  find  force  to  overcome  them, 
in  my  resolution  to  preserve  the  public  peace  ;  in  the  confidence 
I  have  in  the  French  nation,  and  in  the  love  which  they  have 
always  evinced  for  their  kings." 

As  soon  as  this  speech  was  made  public,  the  funds  fell,  and 
the  ministers  had  a  decided  majority  opposed  to  thein  in  the 
chamber  of  deputies.  Royer-Collard  was  re-elected  president. 
On  the  18th,  a  deputation  of  tlie  chamber  presented  an  answer 
to  the  King's  speech.  This  address  respectfully  but  frankly 
informed  him,  "  That  a  concurr€ince  did  not  exist  between  the 
views  of  the  governmetit,  and  the  wishes  of  the  nation  ;  that  the 
administration  was  actuated  by  a  distrust  of  the  nation  ;  and  thaJ 
the  nation,  on  the  other  hand,  was  agitated  with  apprehensions, 
which  would  become  fatal  to  its  prosperity  and  re}X)se."  "Sire, 
(continued  the  address,)  France  does  nof  wish  for  anarchy,  any 
more  than  you  wish  for  despotism."  This  was  a  firm  and  pru- 
dent  warning  here  given  to  the  King  ;  who,  in  reply  expressed 
his  regret,  that  the  concurrence  which  he  had  a  light  to  expect 
from  the  deputies,  did  not  exist.  He  declared  his  resolutions 
were  fixed,  and  that  the  ministers  would  make  known  his  inten- 
tions. The  answer  of  the  peers  to  the  King's  speech,  on  the 
10th,  was  a  mere  echo  of  the  same.  Chateaubriand  made  a  bold 
attack  on  the  ministers.  Both  chambera  were  convoked  for 
the  19th,  when  they  were  declared  to  be  prorogued  to  the  1st 
of  September  of  the  same  year — a  measure  that  was  immediately 
productive  of  great  public  excitement  throughout  France.  Roy- 
alists and  Jesuits  blindly  exulted  in  this  measure  ;  v/hile  the 
liberal  journals  increased  their  activity,  and  boldly  predicted 
the  course  of  events  that  speedily  followed.  Prince  Polignac 
and  the  ministry  were  contemned  for  their  imbecility.  In  Paris, 
a  society  furnished  the  printing  of  journals,  where  they  were 
destitute  through  the  efforts  of  the  government ;  and  in  Brittany 
an  association  was  formed,  determined  to  refuse  the  payment  of 
taxes,  not  regularly  granted  by  the  chamber  of  deputies. 

But  it  is  now  time  to  turn  to  the  war  with  Algiers,  a  city  that 
had  long  been  the  seat  of  the  most  extensive  piracy.  The  main 
object,  however,  of  the  ministr}^  in  prosecuting  this  war,  was 
evidently  popularity.  Knowing  the  inordinate  fondness  of  the 
faaxion  for  unlitar^'  giory,  it  was  anticipated  that  the  subjugation 


;^10  CH AFTER  XIII. 

of  Algiers  would  establish  Charles  X.  and  his  ministry  in  the 
affections  of  the  people,  and  secure  a  favorable  majority  in  the 
chamber.  In  this  hope  they  were  disappointed  ;  for  though  the 
success  of  the  army  was  announced  during  the  election,  it  did 
not  silence  the  opposition  :  a  strong  majority  being  elected. 

The  army,  commanded  by  Count  Bourmont,  consisting  of 
37,577  infantry,  and  4,000  horse,  embarked  on  the  10th  of  May, 
at  Toulon.  The  fleet  consisted  of  97  vessels,  of  which  eleven 
were  ships  of  the  line,  and  24  frigates.  On  the  14th  of  June, 
the  army  began  to  disembark  at  Sidi  Ferrajh,  on  the  African 
coast ;  and  on  the  5th  of  the  following  month,  Algiers  surren- 
dered. This  event  was  made  known  in  Paris  on  the  9th  of  July, 
by  a  telegraphic  despatch.  The  treasure  found  in  Algiers 
amounted  to  90,000,000*  of  francs  in  money,  and  10,000,000  f 
in  gold  and  silver  bullion  and  plate  ;  besides  about  25,000,000:^ 
not  in  the  inventory,  stated  subsequently  in  the  Journal  du 
Commerce,  to  be  43,000,000  francs. 

Having  given  very  briefly  the  successful  issue  of  the  French 
arms,  over  barbarism  in  Africa,  we  now  return  to  our  narrative 
of  the  events  in  France. 

The  success  attendant  on  the  French  arms  in  Africa,  occa- 
sioned gxpat  exultation  in  France  ;  but  it  did  not  divert  the  pub- 
lic from  struggling  for  their  liberty,  against  a  detested  ministry. 

The  chamber  was  dissolved  on  the  17th  of  May,  by  a  royal 
ordinance,  and  new  elections  ordered  ;  and  the  two  chambers 
convoked  for  August  3d. 

The  elections  for  the  new  chamber  took  place  in  June  and 
July.  The  opposition  displayed  great  activity  and  talents,  in 
this  momentous  struggle  ;  and  it  was  soon  seen,  by  men  of  intel- 
ligence, that  a  change  of  ministry  would  be  the  result.  Tney, 
however,  were  determined  not  to  yield,  and  had  the  infatuation, 
rather  to  violate  the  charter,  and  expose  France  to  civil  war, 
than  to  retire.  The  King  appears  to  have  been  blinded  bv  a 
bigoted  priesthood,  and  the  ministers  utterly  regardless  of  the 
sacred  rights  of  the  people,  expressed  by  their  representatives. 
In  the  new  chamber  270  were  liberals,  145  lor  ministers,  and 
15  undecided.  In  consequence  of  this  result,  the  ministry  made 
a  report  to  the  King,  July  26,  on  the  dangers  of  a  free  press. 
In  the  chamber  of  deputies,  convoked  March  2d,  there  were 
221  members  hostile  to  government,  on  which  account  the  King 
had  prorogued  both  chambers,  and  had  appointed  the  2:M  of  June, 
and  third  of  July,  for  the  election  of  new  members,  to  assemble 
on  the  third  of  August.  The  elections  were  not  all  finished,  tdi 
the  19th  of  July ;  before  which  time,  it   was  sufficiently  appa- 

*  $16,655,000.  t  $1,874,100.  ±  $8,058,630 


a.   D.    1830. FRANCE.  311 

rent,  how  the  electrons  would  terminate.  When  the  list  was 
completed,  the  opposition,  was  found  to  have  increased  from  221, 
trv  270.  It  will  now  be  seen,  hovv  affairs  stood  in  France  between 
ilio  crown  and  the  people  :  the  ministry  represented  the  former, 
and  the  chamber  of  deputies  the  latter.  The  ministers  wha<5*i 
auty  it  was  to  have  withdrawn,  resolved  upon  the  mad  project 
of  setting  the  voice  of  the  nation,  and  the  constitutional  chartei 
at  defiance  ;  in  other  words,  of  annulling  the  late  elections.  This 
plan  seems  to  have  been  arranged  about  the  middle  of  July.  It 
was  subsequently  stated  on  the  trial  of  ministers,  that  these 
measures  were  concerted  between  the  10th  and  15th  of  that 
month.  M.  Montbel  in  a  pamphlet  which  he  has  published,  says 
the  ordinances  were  presented  to  the  King,  in  a  council  held  on 
the  21st.  They  were  signed  at  the  next  council  held  on  Sunda^ 
the  25th,  the  day  previous  to  their  public  appearance. 

The  report  made  to  the  King,  signed  by  seven  ministers  and 
published  at  the  same  time  with  the  ordinances,  was  intended 
to  justify  themselves  for  the  course  they  had  resolved  upon.  In 
this  flimsy  document  they  called  for  the  suspension  of  the  press, 
remarking,  "  At  all  epochs,  the  periodical  press  has  only  been, 
and  from  its  nature  must  ever  be,  an  instrument  of  disorder  and 
sedition." 

By  the  first  ordinance,  the  liberty  of  the  press  was  suspended. 
By  the  second  ordinance  the  chamber  of  deputies  was  dissolved. 
And  a  third  ordinance  abrogated  the  existing  law  of  election 
itself,  reducing  the  number  of  members  from  480  to  258,  and 
sweeping  off  three-fourths  of  the  former  constituency,  abolishing 
the  ballot  and  nearly  extinguishing  the  representative  system. 
In  defiance  of  these  ordinances,  the  conductors  of  all  the  liberal 
journals  determined  to  publish  their  papers. 

The  only  papers  allowed  by  government  to  appear  were  the 
Moniteur  Universal,  Quotidienne,  Gazette  de  France,  and  Dra- 
peau  blanc.  The  seizure  of  the  liberal  journals  on  the  morning 
of  the  27th  July,  was  the  commencement  of  the  revolutionary 
drama.  These  ordinances  were  nothing  less  than  a  determi- 
nation on  the  part  of  the  crown  to  deprive  the  nation  of  its 
liberty,  and  to  establish  despotism.  The  audacious  attempt 
however  failed.  Had  the  French  ministry  succeeded  in  silencing 
the  press,  and  bringing  the  representation  to  a  state  of  subser- 
viency, they  might  for  a  time  perhaps  have  succeeded  in  their 
mad  projects.  Nothing  shows  more  strikingly  the  rashness  and 
entire  want  of  discernment  of  the  ministry,  at  the  time  of  which 
we  are  speaking,  than  the  issuing  of  ordinances  so  obnoxious, 
without  even  anticipating  resistance  of  any  kind,  much  less  a 
re>olution. 


312  CHAPTER   XIII, 

It  was  on  Sunday,  the  25th  of  July,  the  fatal  ordinances  were 
aigiied  by  Charles  the  Tenth  and  his  ministers,  and  at  11  P.  M. 
M.  Sauvo,  principal  editor  of  the  Moniteur,  received  from 
Ctiantelauze,  and  Montbel,  at  the  house  of  the  former,  the 
manuscript  for  publication  on  the  following  morning.  As 
Sauvo  glanced  over  the  contents,  Montbel  remarked,  he  seemed 
agitated  ;  his  reply  was,  "  God  save  the  King,  God  save 
France."  M.  Montbel  and  Chantelauze  answered,  "  we  hope 
he  will."  At  an  early  hour  on  Monday  nnorning  the  26th,  the 
obnoxious  ordinances  appeared  in  the  Moniteur,  and  Bulletin 
des  Lois.  The  prefect  of  the  Seine  was  astounded  at  seeing 
them,  about  5  o'clock,  not  having  apprehended  any  thing  of 
the  kind,  nor  does  Marshal  Marmont,  appear  to  have  had  any 
^knowledge  of  these  measures :  the  first  intimation  he  received 
of  the  fatal  ordinance  was  by  Komierowski,  one  of  his  aids, 
while  he  was  breakfasting  at  St.  Cloud.  He  exclaimed  that  it 
was  not  possible  the  report  could  be  true.  At  half  past  seven, 
he  set  out  for  Paris,  not  having  seen  a  newspaper  till  his  arrival 
in  the  city.  He  then  went  to  the  Institute  where  he  met  his 
friend  M.  Arago — "  Well,"  said  he  to  him,  "  you  perceive  that 
things  are  proceeding  as  I  had  foreseen  ;  the  fools  have  driven 
matters  to  extremities.  You  have  only  to  mourn  in  your  capa- 
city of  a  citizen  and  a  good  Frenchman  ;  but  how  much  greater 
cause  have  I  to  lament,  who  as  a  soldier  shall  perhaps  be  obliged 
to  throw  away  my  life  for  acts  which  I  abhor,  and  for  people 
who  seem  for  a  long  time  to  have  studied  only  how  to  overwhelm 
me  with  disgust." 

The  ordinances  spread  but  slowly  in  Paris,  among  the  pub- 
lic :  this  however  was  owing  to  the  Moniteur  being  principally 
read  by  those  connected  with  government.  For  several  hours 
no  unusual  excitement  was  manifested.  That  class  who  first 
felt  its  effects  were  the  journalists.  It  has  been  stated,  that  at 
this  period  thirty  thousand,  persons  were  engaged  in  printing 
in  Paris.  The  effect  of  the  ordinances  was  to  throw  them  out 
of  employment.  The  conductors  of  journals  represented  to 
their  workmen,  that  they  had  no  longer  any  employment  for 
them,  they  must  go  and  ask  it  at  their  good  King.  The  jour- 
nalists, on  this  emergency,  displayed  great  courage  :  seeing  the 
ordinances  would  be  ruinous  to  their  business,  and  destroy  their 
rights,  they  fearlessly  set  them  at  defiance,  by  publishing  second 
editions  of  their  papers,  the  same  aflernoon,  in  order  to  make 
them  more  generally  known.  At  five  o'clock,  the  prefect  of 
police,  Mangin,  issued  injunctions  to  the  printing  offices,  to 
stop  any  further  publications,  except  in  conformity  to  the  new 
law  ;    and  caused  a  printed  proclamation  to  be  circulated  and 


FRENCH  REVOLUTION,  MONDAY,  JULY  26,  1830.  31S 

pasted  on  the  walls  with  the  penalties  to  the  keepers  of  reading 
rooms,  &;c. 

The  journalists  assembled  and  drew  up  in  great  haste  an 
address  to  their  countrymen ;  this  was  signed  and  published. 
/t  was  a  noble  display  of  courage  and  patriotism  :  they  stated, 
*'  as  they  were  first  called  on  to  obey,  so  they  ought  to  give  the 
first  example  of  resistance  to  authority,  now  that  it  had  stripped 
itself  of  the  character  of  law.  This  day,  the  government  has 
violated  all  law,  we  are  set  free  from  obedience ;"  and  declared 
their  determination  to  publish  their  journals,  regardless  of  the 
ordinances.  "  We  will  do  our  endeavors,  that  for  one  day 
more,  at  least,  they  may  be  circulated  over  all  France.  It  be- 
longs  not  to  us  to  point  out  its  duties  to  the  chamber,  which  has 
been  illegally  dissolved.  But  we  may  supplicate  it  in  the  name 
of  France,  to  take  its  stand  on  its  manifest  rights,  and  resist,  as 
far  as  it  shall  have  the  power,  the  violation  of  the  laws.  Its 
rights  are  equally  certain,  with  those  on  which  we  ourselves 
rest.  The  charter  (article  50,)  says  the  King  may  dissolve  the 
chamber  of  deputies,  but  for  that  power  to  be  exercised,  the 
chamber  must  have  met  and  been  constituted — nay,  must  surely 
have  done  something  to  warrant  its  dissolution.  Before  the 
chamber  has  met  and  been  constituted,  there  is  no  chamber  to 
dissolve.  There  are  only  elections  to  annul :  now  no  passage 
in  the  charter  gives  the  King  the  right  of  doing  this.  The  ordi- 
nances which  have  this  day  appeared,  do  only  in  fact  annul  the 
elections,  and  are  therefore  illegal  ;  as  doing  that  which  the 
charter  does  not  authorize. 

"  We  assume  the  attitude  of  resistance  in  so  far  as  we  are 
ourselves  concerned  ;  it  belongs  to  France  to  consider  to  what 
extent  she  will  adopt  the  same  course."  This  address  was  signed 
with  the  names  of  forty-four  of  the  journalists. 

In  the  mean  time,  the  agitation  had  already  begun  in  the 
streets  ;  the  crowd  assembled  at  the  Palais  Royal,  to  hear  the 
papers  and  news  discussed,  was  continually  increasing,  till  their 
increased  numbers,  and  violence  of  language,  alarmed  the 
authorities,  who  sent  a  party  of  gendarmes  to  watch  over  them. 
By  3  o'clock  in  the  afternoon,  the  crowd  spread  from  the  square 
of  the  palace,  to  the  adjoining  streets.  They  then  began  to 
assail  the  gendarmes,  who  kept  their  stations,  making  as  yet  no 
attempt  to  drive  the  people  back. 

About  8  o'clock,  there  was  a  great  addition  to  the  crowd 
about  the  Palais  from  the  pruiting  and  manufacturing  establish- 
ments. Their  masters,  in  dismissing  their  hands,  after  their 
day's  work,  had  notified  them  they  should  have  no  further  em- 
ployment for  them.     Here  then  was  a  great  addition  of  niea 

VOL.  u.  27 


314  -CHAPTER  XIII. 

under  high  excitement,  determined  upon  resistance,  which  was 
now  spoken  of  openly. 

The  fearless  began  to  harangue  the  people,  drawn  together 
by  sympathy,  and  each  speech  was  received  with  loud  cries  of 
bravo,  clapping  of  hands,  and  cries  of  "  down  with  the  minis* 
ters" — "  The  charter  forever."  The  shops  were  now  closed, 
and  a  sudden  alarm  spread  through  the  throng. 

The  police  and  gendarmes  advanced  upon  the  crowd  in  the 
Palais,  and  succeeded  for  a  moment  in  clearing  it,  without 
inflicting  any  wounds.  The  mob  proceeded  to  the  hotel  of 
Prince  Polignac,  on  the  Boulevard  des  Capuchins,  who  was 
at  this  time  at  St.  Cloud.  On  learning  this  fact,  many  went  otn 
purpose  to  intercept  him  ;  but  mistaking  his  carriage,  he  was 
enabled  to  return  without  injury,  under  the  escort  of  two  gen- 
darmes. The  windows  of  his  hotel  were  broken,  and  his 
carriage  assailed  with  stones.  As  he  entered  the  court,  the 
mob  threatened  to  return  with  reinforcements  to  set  fire  to  his 
hotel.  During  the  night,  the  lamps  in  several  of  the  streets 
were  demolished,  and  the  lights  extinguished,  and  the  windows 
of  some  public  buildings  broken.  All  these  acts  sufficiently 
indicated  the  preparation  for  the  morrow.  This  day  the  King 
had  passed  in  the  amusements  of  the  chase  at  Rambouillet,  and 
did  not  return  till  late  to  St.  Cloud. 

The  whole  effective  military  force  stationed  at  Paris,  the  Sun- 
day  previous  to  the  publication  of  the  ordinances,  was  11,550 
men,  8  cannon,  and  4  howitzers ;  1850  men  of  this  number, 
includes  the  guards  and  gendarmes  daily  stationed  at  the  posts 
in  the  Capital,  St.  Cloud,  and  other  places  near.  These  were 
all  seized  and  disarmed  in  detail.  The  disposable  force,  there- 
fore, did  not  at  most  exceed  9,700  men,  and  of  this  number,  but 
three  regiments  of  guards,  two  of  cavalry,  and  a  few  artillery, 
4,200,  were  all  that  could  be  depended  upon.  There  were 
besides,  1000  cavalry,  and  300  infantry,  belonging  to  St.  Cloud, 
Versailles,  and  St.  Germain,  but  these  were  never  engaged.  A 
staff  officer  of  the  guards,  who  was  engaged  during  the  conflict, 
stated  if  suitable  precautions  had  been  taken  a  fortnight  previous, 
that  it  would  have  been  easy  to  have  assembled  from  thirty  to 
forty  thousand  men,  with  fifty  cannon,  in  Paris. 

On  the  morning  of  the  27th  (Tuesday)  several  of  the  jour- 
nals  were  printed  and  distributed,  so  determined  were  the  jour- 
nalists to  discharge  their  duty  to  the  public.  The  Constiiutionel 
was  prevented  from  the  distribution  o-f  its  papers  by  the  police 
having  stationed  a  sentinel  at  the  door  of  the  office.  The 
NaiionaJ,  the  Temps,  and  the  Figaro,  were  printed  at  an  eariy 
hour    and  thrown  from  the  windows  among  the  people,  an^ 


FRENCH  REVOLUTION,  TUESDAY,  JULY  27,  1830.  ol5 

rapidly  dispersed  through  the  city.  These  papers  contained 
ihe  ordinances,  and  the  noble  protests  of  the  journalists.  The 
•authorities  commenced  their  operations  against  the  printing 
offices  that  had  set  the  ordinances  at  defiance,  and  part  of  their 
printing  presses  were  taken  away,  so  as  to  render  them  useless. 
The  National  distributed  to  the  crowd  7,0G0  copies  in  less  than 
an  hour.  Thus  far  the  journalists  had  manfully  discharged 
their  duty.  This  day  a  considerable  number  of  the  newly 
elected  members  of  the  chamber  cf  deputi-es  assembled  at  2 
P.  M.  at  the  house  of  M.  Casimir  Perrier ;  when  a  protest  was 
drawn  up  and  signed. 

The  King  this  morning  appointed  Marshal  Marmont,  com- 
mander m  chief  of  the  forces  in  Paris.  He  immediately  esta- 
blished his  head  quarters  at  the  Tuileries.  At  half  past  four, 
an  order  was  issued  at  the  barracks  for  several  regiments  to 
march  to  different  stations.  One  battalion  of  guards,  and  two 
pieces  of  artillery,  were  stationed  on  the  Boulevard  des  Capu- 
chins, in  front  of  Polignac's  hotel,  the  interior  of  which  was 
protected  with  soldiers  of  the  5th  regiment  of  the  line.  A 
squadron  of  lancers  protected  this  part  of  the  Boulevard. 
Several  battalions  of  the  line  occupied  the  portion  of  the  Boule- 
vards from  the  porte  St.  Martin  towards  the  place  de  la  Bastile, 
and  also  the  place  Vendome.  Three  battalions  of  the  guard 
were  placed  in  the  Carrousel,  and  the  place  of  the  Palais  Royal : 
and  two  battalions  q^  the  guards,  with  two  camion,  were  sta- 
tioned in  the  place  Louis  XV. 

While  these  dispositions  of  the  troops  were  making,  the  streets 
^were  filled  with  the  multitude,  as  yet  unarmed  :  they  now  began 
to  supply  themselves  with  arms  from  the  shops  of  gunsmiths ; 
and  were  soon  in  actual  conflict  with  the  military. 

The  battalions  of  the  regiments  of  the  line,  stationed  in  front 
of  the  Palais  Royal,  were  received  by  the  crowd  with  cries  of, 
■*'  the  line  forever,  the  line  does  not  fire,  the  line  is  on  our  side." 
Both  men  and  officers,  were  averse  to  firing  upon  the  people. 
But  the  guards  considered  themselves  obliged  to  remain  faithful 
to  the  government.  The  mob  had  already  begun  in  several 
instances  to  attack  the  soldiers  with  stones,  and  every  kind  of 
missile  :  these  they  carried  to  the  upper  stories,  and  roofs  of 
houses,  and  hurled  them  on  the  soldiers  beneath.  They  now 
began  to  barricade  the  streets,  and  thus  sheltered,  they  were 
enabled  to  oppose  the  patroles. 

This  night  the  remaining  lamps  were  demolished,  a  judicious 
precaution  and  not  proceeding  from  mere  wantonness  ;  as  it 
enabled  them  to  erect  barricades  during  the  night,  and  rendered 
their  operations   more  secure  from  the  vigilance  of  the  niili- 


8lt>  CRa^TEK  XIII. 

tary.  Marshal  Marmont  had  written  to  the  King,  informing 
him  that  pubhc  tranquilHty  was  restored,  and  therefore  made 
no  preparations  during  the  night,  nor  sent  dispatclies  for  more 
troops.  He  did  not  even  guard  the  great  depots  of  arms  and 
ammunition. 

During  the  night,  the  greatest  activity  prevailed  on  the  part 
of  the  people.  The  inhabitants  were  enrolled  into  bands,  and 
arrangements  made  for  supplying  them  with  muskets,  ammu- 
nition, &c.  The  telegraphs  had  been  rendered  useless  in  the 
night ; — this  was  an  effectual  means  of  preventing  signals  for 
further  succors.  Bands  of  men  supplied  themselves  freely  from 
the  gunsmiths  shops,  and  the  arms  used  at  the  different  theatres, 
and  in  fact,  every  kind  of  offensive  weapon  was  seized  and 
pressed  into  service. 

Wednesday,  2Sth.—At  an  early  hour,  the  throng  assembled 
in  the  streets,  and  directed  their  march  upon  the  Hotel  de  Ville, 
soon  filling  the  square  in  front  of  that  building.  This  morning 
the  national  guard  appeared  in  their  uniform,  among  the  throng. 
Measures  were  soon  taken  to  organize  this  favorite  corps  ;  a 
commission  was  nominated  to  proceed  to  Gen.  Lafayette,  and 
receive  his  orders.  He  did  not  however  assume  the  command 
of  the  guards,  till  the  morning  of  the  29th.  The  re-organiza- 
tion of  the  national  guard  went  on  promptly  during  the  day ; 
the  number  that  appeared  was  considerable,  mostly  in  uniform^ 
and  with  them  appeared  the  famous  Tri-colored  flag,  so  dear  to 
the  hearts  of  all  Frenchmen.  By  nine  o'clock  it  waved  on 
the  pinnacles  of  Notre  Dame,  and  at  eleven,  it  surmounted  the 
central  tower  of  the  Hotel  de  Ville,  which  was  taken  possession 
of  by  the  populace,  and  who  immediately  stationed  themselves 
at  the  windows  with  fire-arms.  The  tocsin  had  been  ringing 
from  the  bells  of  Notre  Dame,  and  the  church  of  St.  Gervais,  with 
all  other  means  that  could  be  devised,  to  give  the  greatest  pub- 
lic excitement ;  and  to  fill  the  populace  with  courage,  vehement 
speeches  were  made,  and  placards,  with  imprecations  against 
the  ministry,  were  stuck  up  in  all  the  public  thoroughfares. 

At  eight  o'clock  this  morning,  the  dilTerent  regiments  left  the 
barracks,  and  at  nine  took  their  stations  at  the  following  places  : 
six  battalions  of  French  guards,  about  1320  men,  with  three 
squadrons  of  lancers,  of  100  men  each,  and  8  guns,  were  drawn 
ap  in  the  place  du  Carrousel.  500  cuirassiers  were  quartered 
in  the  barracks,  near  the  Bastile,  and  were  in  communication 
with  the  5th,  50th,  and  53d  regiments  of  the  line,  who  occupied 
ne^irly  the  whole  extent  of  the  northern  Boulevards  and  place 
Vendome. — The  15th  light  infantry,  were  ordered  to  the  place 
de  Greve,  Pantheon,  and  Palais  de  Justice.     The  place  de  Greve 


FRENCH  REVOLUTION,  WEDNESDAY,  JULY  28,  1830.         317 

liad,  from  an.  early  hour,  been  filled  with  the  armed  populace ; 
a  detachment  of  soldiers  no  sooner  arrived  there,  than,  accord, 
ing  to  the  testimony  of  Lieut.  St.  Germain,  seven  or  eight  hun- 
dred persons,  most  of  whom  bore  fire-arms,  rushed  upon  them, 
with  a  loud  outcry,  and  fired  a  volley,  by  which  two  men  were 
killed,  and  most  of  the  detachment  wounded,  with  the  officer  in 
■command.  The  soldiers  then  fired,  and  several  of  the  people 
fell.  They  immediately  retreated,  pui'sued  by  the  crowd.  At 
the  place  de  Chatelet,  which  Was  also  filled  with  people,  a  body 
of  soldiers  were  drawn  up  in  the  order  of  battle :  here  the  har- 
rassed  detachment  of  Lieut.  St.  Germain,  found  a  reinforcement 
m  a  platoon  of  grenadiers,  a  few  shots  froin  whom  drove  back  the 
assailants.  A  hoavy  fire  was  now  commenced  upon  the  batta- 
lion, from  the  Pont  au  Change,  from  the  adjoining  quay,  and 
from  all  the  windows  near.  Many  of  the  soldiers  were  wound- 
ed, and  forced  to  retire  to  the  other  side  of  the  river,  and  got 
to  the  Tuileries  at  three-quarters  past  10,  where  some  addi- 
tional troops  had  arrived  from  St.  Dennis,  Vincennes,  and  Ver- 
sailles. 

It  does  not  appear,  that  iMarshal  Marmont  had  formed  any 
regular  or  eifective  plan  of  proceeding  :  the  troops  were  marched 
and  countermarched,  about  the  streets  and  quays,  assailed  by 
every  kind  of  missile,  thrown  from  windows  and  the  tops  of 
houses :  the  time  was  lost,  when  any  thing  effective  could  be 
accomplished.  The  warfare  had  now  became  general,  and 
ihe  events  are  so  confusedly  related,  that  it  is  difficult  to  give 
to  them  a  systematic  arrangement.  We  shall  therefore  endea- 
vor to  describe  the  most  prominent  facts,  as  related  by  the 
different  writers  at  this  memorable  epoch.  Wherever  the  mil- 
itary  took  their  stand,  the  increasing  crowds  that  surrounded 
them,  emd  the  constant  accession  of  arms,  rendered  the  situatwwti 
of  the  soldiers  extremely  galling ;  barricades  were  also  thrown 
up  on  every  side,  which  rendered  their  situation  still  more  di«- 
heartening. 

A  column  consisting  of  a  battahon  of  guards,  half  a  squadron 
of  lancers,  with  two  pieces  of  cannon,  was  sent  to  occupy  the 
Hotel  de  Ville.  Their  force  was  joined  by  one  of  the  battalions 
of  the  15th  regiment ;  this  column  then  crossed  the  bridge,  Pont 
Neuf,  and  advanced  along  the  Quai  de  I'Horloge,  djc,  and  pre- 
pared to  recross  the  river  to  march  upon  the  Hotel  de  Vi'lle,  by 
the  Pont  Notre  Dame,  a  few  hundred  paces  west  of  the  Greve. 
The  people  now  advanced  in  great  force,  and  tolerable  order, 
with  drums  beating,  on  the  opposite  end  of  the  bridge,  to  oppose 
their  passage.  The  two  cannon  were  now  planted  on  the  centra 
of  the  bridge ;  a  field  officer  of  the  guards  here  advanced  and 


318  CHAPTEK  xiri. 

warned  the  people  af  their  danger,  by  pointing  to  the  guns,  and 
assured  them  they  were  marching  to  certain  destruction.  Tina 
had  the  effect  of  causing  the  people  to  withdraw ;  but  while  so 
doing,  some  shots  were  fired,  and  an  adjutant  killed.  The  can- 
non fired  one  shot  each,  and  the  column  passed  over  and  occu- 
pied the  Quays  de  Greves  and  Pelletier  on  the  north  side  of  the 
river.  In  the  mean  time,  a  smaller  force  attempted  to  pass  the 
new  suspension  bridge,  directly  opposite  the  Greve,  where  they 
were  received  with  a  galling  fire,  from  the  house-tops,  windows, 
and  quays  along  the  Seine.  The  res^t  of  the  column  coming  up 
to  their  assistance,  the  place  was  taken.  Tlie  guards  had  no 
?ooner  taken  their  position,  than  they  learned  with  deep  conster- 
<iation  that  a  battalion  of  the  15th  light  infantry  stationed  along 
♦.he  quays  had  revolted.  The  general  in  command  of  the  guards 
was  soon  apprised  of  this,  by  the  falling  of  his  men.  The  Quai 
de  Citi  was  filled  with  sharp  shooters  of  the  insurgents,  who  pro- 
tected by  the  presence  of  the  15th  regiment,  kept  up  a  continued 
fire  upon  the  guards  in  the  place. 

By  this  time  the  50th  regiment,  stationed  in  the  morning  at 
the  Boulevards,  and  afterwards  marched  to  the  place  de  Greve, 
determined  to  lay  down  their  arms  :  they  wished  to  return  to 
their  barracks,  but  finding  these  were  already  in  possession  of 
the  people,  they  joined  40  cuirassiers,  then  departing  from  the 
Bastile,  for  the  Hotel  de  Ville.  The  latter  had  many  difficulties 
to  encounter,  marching  through  back  streets,  and  at  length 
reached  the  Hotel,  but  the  50th  regiment  took  no  part  in  the 
fighting,  by  which  the  cuirassiers  made  their  way.  On  their 
arrival  at  the  Hotel  de  Ville,  the  officer  commanding  the  rririrds 
was  apprised  that  he  could  not  depend  on  receiving  the  reiiitorce- 
ment  from  the  Bastile,  as  he  fully  expected  ;  and  what  rendered 
his  situation  more  trying,  his  cartridges  were  now  about  spent r 
Two  detachments  were  sent  in  quest  of  ammunition,  but  did  not 
return.  A  message  succeeded  in  gaining  the  Tuileries;  this 
was  by  a  party  of  cuirassiers ;  200  Swiss  were  sent  to  the  place 
de  Greve  ;  when  they  arrived  there,  the  guards  220  strong,  had 
been  engaged  five  hours,  and  had  forty  men  hors  de  combat, 
(about  5  o'clock,)  and  had  gained  an  entrance,  with  a  part  of 
their  forces,  into  the  Hotel  de  Ville.  The  populace  having  now 
returned,  the  cavalry  arid  artillery  sheltered  themselves  in  the 
stable  yards  from  the  severe  fire,  directed  against  them,  from 
the  opposite  bank  of  the  river.  The  50th  regiment  was  also 
protected  in  the  inner  court  of  the  Hotel. 

The  hardest  fighting  yet,  had  been  at  the  entry  of  Rue  du 
Mouton,  a  street  that  opens  into  the  place  de  Greve,  from  the 
north.    When  the  troops  had  established  themselves  in  the  place 


FRENCH   REVOLUTION,  WEDNESDAY,  JULY  28,  1830.  319 

de  Greve,  a  severe  fire  was  kept  up  against  them  from  both 
angles  of  the  street,  and  from  behind  a  barricade  there  thrown 
up,  but  which  was  soon  taken  and  retaken,  on  the  arrival  of 
the  Swiss,  during  a  movement  ill  executed  ;  its  loss  led  to  the 
severest  conflict  of  the  day,  from  the  determination  of  the  sol- 
diers to  regain  this  post,  in  which  they  finally  succeeded,  and 
drove  the  popular  forces  away.  The  troops  at  length  were 
withdrawn  into  the  Hotel  de  Ville,  except  a  detachment  of  light 
infantry,  that  held  the  barricade  in  the  Rue  du  Mouton.  The 
sharp-shooters  of  the  guards,  kept  up  a  destructive  fire  from 
the  windows  of  the  Hotel,  having  now  received  a  supply  of 
cartridges  from  the  regiments  of  the  line,  which  refused  to  fire 
upon  the  people. 

After  the  Hotel  was  taken  possession  of  by  the  troops,*  they 
kept  it  during  the  day's  fight. 

Wednesday  was  the  usual  day  on  which  the  King  held  a 
council  ;  but  the  state  of  affairs  in  Paris,  prevented  the  routine 
of  business,  and  the  ministers  for  safety,  had  taken  up  their 
quarters  at  the  Tuileries. 

The  celebrated  M.  Arago,  of  the  Academy  of  Sciences,  who 
was  on  terms  of  great  intimacy  with  Marmont,  sought  an  inter- 
view :  for  this  purpose,  he  exposed  himself,  in  company  with 
his  son,  to  all  risks,  to  gain  the  palace  of  the  Tuileries.  It 
was  2  o'clock,  P.  M.  when  he  arrived,  where  he  was  ushered 
into  the  presence  of  Marmont,  in  a  saloon  looking  towards  the 
Carrousel.  He  found  him  with  many  officers,  and  other  per- 
sons not  m  uniform.  M.  Arago,  taking  the  Marshal  aside,  in 
a  conversation  insisted  on  the  rights  of  resistance  on  the  part 
of  the  people — that  the  ordinances  should  be  immediately  with- 
drawn— and  the  dismissal  of  the  ministers,  &c.  During  this 
discussion,  an  aid-de-camp  brought  intelligence  that  General 
Quinsenas  could  no  longer  maintain  his  position,  which  put  an 
end  to  this  interview.  Immediately  after,  the  arrival  of  several 
members  of  the  chamber  of  deputies  was  announced  ;  and 
these  were  introduced  to  the  presence  of  the  Marshal.  These 
deputies  were  M.  M.  Lafitte,  Casimir  Perrier,  General  Gerard, 
Lobau,  and  Mauguin.  They  represented  the  dangers  which 
threatened  the  throne  ;  the  convulsed  and  frightful  state  of  the 
Capital;  and  demanded  that  the  ministers  should  be  dismissed, 
and  the  ordinances  withdrawn,  as  the  only  means  to  stop  the 
effusion  of  blood.     The   Marshal  communicated  the  substance 

*  There  appears  to  be  some  discrepancy  in  the  statements  of  different 
writers  about  the  taking  and  holding  the  Hotel ;  but  the  fact,  as  stated 
above,  is  established  by  the  narration  of  the  stafF-ofRcer  and  others,  given 
during  the  trial  of  the  ministers 


320  CHAPTER  XIII 

of  this  message  to  the  ministers.  The  reply  of  M.  Polignac 
was,  It  was  useless  for  him  to  see  them.  They  immediately 
withdrew.  Lafitte,  the  chief  speaker,  said,  the  question  could 
only  be  decided  by  the  chance  of  arms ;  and  henceforward,  the 
deputies  determined  to  exert  themselves  in  the  revolutionary 
cause — seeing  there  was  no  hope  of  an  accommodation. 

In  the  conflict  maintained  this  day,  in  the  place  de  Greve, 
the  populace  displayed  the  utmost  perseverance,  and  the  most 
unshrinking  courage.  The  rapidity  and  excellent  judgment  of 
their  movements,  the  readiness  to  seize  on  every  advantage  to 
annoy  the  enemy,  shows,  they  must  have  had  leaders  possessed 
of  much  practical  military  knowledge.  Nor  did  they  shrink 
from  the  sanguinary  contest,  where  any  thing  could  be  gained 
by  the  sacrifice  of  life.  It  should  be  borne  in  mind,  that  this 
struggle  was  also  carried  on,  under  a  most  oppressive  heat, 
Fahrenheit's  thermometer  ransring  at  95°. 

Tiie  iron  suspension-bridge  was  the  theatre  of  many  daring 
feats  of  valor  ;  and  has  since  been  called,  in  commemoration, 
the  bridge  of  Arcole,  (le  Pont  rf'  Arcole.) 

The  wounded,  during  the  day,  were  carried  in  carts  and  lit- 
ters, to  the  hospitals  ;  and  the  dead  to  the  Morgue,  amidst  the 
most  respectful  silence  of  the  crowd. 

The  royal  troops,  though  they  were  in  possession  of  the 
Hotel  de  Ville,  without  any  hopes  of  receiving  further  reinforce- 
ments, were  now  exceedingly  anxious  to  quit  it.  They  accord- 
ingly effected  a  retreat,  during  the  stillness  of  the  night,  to  the 
Tuileries.  Of  wounded  men,  they  had  between  50  and  60 — 
though  another  statement  makes  the  number  much  higher, 
these  they  carried  with  them.  The  people  had  generally  lefl 
the  streets  and  windows,  during  the  night.  The  troops  at 
length  reached  the  Tuileries,  without  any  obstruction  except 
a  barricade  they  had  to  take  down,  to  get  their  cannon  along : 
this  made  some  noise,  and  occasioned  some  shots  to  be  fired 
about  them. 

In  the  Boulevard  St.  Denis,  a  great  crowd  had  assembled  at 
an  early  hour,  and  among  these  was  seen  the  uniform  of  the 
national  guard.  This  crowd  was  not  generally  armed  with 
muskets.  About  8  o'clock,  a  detachment  of  cuirassiers  made 
a  charge  upon  the  crowd,  at  full  gallop.  They  were  then  en- 
gaged in  tearing  up  the  j>avement,  and  carrying  the  stones  to 
the  top  of  the  Port  St.  Denis.  They  stood  firm,  and  with  long 
poles  threw  the  cuirassiers  from  their  saddles  at  the  first  encoun- 
ter, and  seized  their  arms,  suffering  none  to  escape.  With  these 
new  equipments,  the  offensive  was  now  assumed  by  them.  At 
9,  a  guard  of  20  soldiers  of  the  line  surrendered  their  arms ; 


FRENCH  REVOLUTION,  WEDNESDAY,  JULY  28,   1830.  'S'Zx 

the  guard-house  was  demolished,  and  of  the  materials,  a  barri- 
cade was  constructed  across  the  Boulevard.  A  furious  encoun- 
ter took  place  with  the  guards,  at  the  gate,  where  stones  were 
hurled,  and  a  brisk  fire  kept  up. 

The  people  now  commenced  erecting  barricades  on  a  great 
scale,  along  the  Boulevard,  at  the  suggestion  of  Ambrose  Meno- 
ret,  a  carpenter  :  for  this  purpose,  the  fine  trees,  planted  by 
Louis  the  Grand,  were  levelled  by  the  axe.  It  was  done  with 
expedition  and  great  science,  under  the  direction  of  Menoret, 
who  supplied  them  with  tools  from  his  shop.  This  was  a  most 
fortunate  idea.  These  barriers  were  so  numerous,  as  to  be 
insurmountable,  and  cut  off  all  communication  with  the  troops. 
This  line  of  barricades  extended  from  the  Rue  du  Temple,  in  the 
east,  to  the  Rue  de  Richelieu,  west.  An  eminent  architect,  Mr. 
Crecy,  had  a  large  quantity  of  timber,  scaffold  poles,  pick-axes, 
crow-bars,  &c.  carried  away  ;  all  these  were  afterwards  returned 
with  scrupulous  exactness. 

From  a  subsequent  report,  it  appears  that  during  the  revo- 
lutionary struggle,  4055  barricades  were  thrown  up,  consisting 
of  trees  felled,  carriages  of  every  description  overturned,  and 
the  pavements  taken  up.  The  number  of  paving  stones  torn 
up,  for  this  purpose,  were  3,125,000.  The  expense  of  paving 
the  streets  again,  was  250,000  francs.  Paris  is  paved  with 
large  square  stones.  The  gutters  are  in  the  middle  of  the  streets, 
and  they  flowed  with  blood  during  these  sanguinary  conflicts. 

The  immense  importance  of  these  numerous  barricades, 
thrown  up  with  such  unparalleled  rapidity,  will  be  best  illus- 
trated by  the  following  details.  A  strong  column  arrived  at  the 
Bastile,  and  began  to  fire  upon  the  people ;  these  discharges 
were  kept  up  without  intermission,  and  returned  by  the  people, 
who  were  forced  to  retire ;  and  were  pursued  by  the  troops,  as 
far  as  the  Rue  de  Reuilly,  which  meets  the  Rue  du  Faubourg, 
St.  Antoine.  Here  the  troops  were  again  assailed  with  a  sharp 
fire,  and  had  several  barricades  to  overcome.  The  column 
remained  in  the  Rue  Faubourg  St.  Antoine,  till  half  past  three, 
and  when  about  to  retire,  were  again  assailed  with  firing,  and 
missiles  from  the  houses.  On  the  return  of  this  body  of  troops 
to  the  Bastile,  the  commander,  M.  St.  Chamans,  found  he  could 
not  return  by  the  northern  Boulevards,*  from  the  numerous  bar- 

*  The  total  number  of  streets  in  Paris,  exclusive  of  Culsde  Sac,  are  1142, 
mostly  narrow.  The  18  Boulevards  are  broad  streets,  planted  on  both 
sides  with  trees,  and  forming  beautiful  promenades.  Those  outside  of  the 
walls  are  called  the  exterior  Boulevards.  The  interior  Boulevards  are 
divided  into  the  old,  or  northern,  and  the  new,  or  southern,  and  are  of  great 
length,  with  many  streets  running  into  them. — Enc.  Am.  Vol.  IX.  p  524. 
a  work  from  which  we  have  derived  many  important  facts 


822  CHAPTER  XIII. 

ricades,  that  had  risen  as  if  by  magic.  The  attempt  to  force  a 
passage  to  the  Hotel  de  Ville,  by  the  Rue  St.  Antoine,  also 
failed,  from  the  same  cause ;  while  the  troops  were  exposed  to 
a  heavy  fire  from  all  the  windows,  and  their  ammunition  was 
now  exhausted.  Under  all  these  dangers,  M,  St.  Chamans 
returned  as  well  as  he  could,  with  his  column,  over  the  bridge 
of  Austerlitz,  and  by  a  circuitous  way  to  the  Tuileries,  by  the 
southern  Boulevards.  The  column  arrived  at  the  place  Louis 
XV.  between  10  and  11  at  night.  After  this,  no  more  troops 
were  seen  in  the  place  de  la  Bastile  or  neighborhood. 

The  28th  closed  with  the  retirement  of  the  royal  forces  fron 
every  position  in  which  they  had  attempted  to  establish  them, 
selves  during  the  day.  During  the  night,  the  citizens  did  not 
cease  from  their  exertions,  but  availed  themselves  of  this  respite, 
to  complete  the  erection  of  barricades,  in  every  part  of  the 
city.  In  this  great  work,  all  ranks  of  citizens,  the  aged  and 
the  young,  were  alike  ardently  employed.  These  barriers  were 
erected  at  about  forty  or  fifty  paces  asunder,  breast  high,  ^nd 
four  or  five  feet  in  thickness,  the  work  was  carried  on  by  torch 
light,  the  lamps  having  been  broken.  The  dreadful  tocsin  con- 
tinued ringing  during  the  night.  In  the  vicmity  of  the  Louvre, 
and  the  Tuileries,  a  patrol  of  guards,  continued  to  walk  during 
the  niglit,  and  fired  upon  all  who  came  within  reach  of  their 
muskets. 

Thursday,  29th,  the  drums  beat  the  reveille,  and  the  hurrying 
crowds  £is  they  assembled,  cried,  "  To  arms,  to  arms  !^^  Several 
distinguished  military  characters,  were  this  day  to  act  as  lead- 
ers. Among  them  were  Generals  Gerard  and  Dubourg.  The 
entire  failure  of  the  plans  of  Marmont  had  induced  him  to  adopt 
this  day  a  different  mode  of  warfare.  Instead  of  marching  his 
troops  through  the  streets  to  no  purpose,  he  had  sent  for  further 
reinforcements,  and  now  intended  to  concentrate  all  his  strength 
in  the  Tuileries,  and  keep  up  a  communication  with  St.  Cloud, 
The  following  places  were  in  possession  of  the  royal  troops,  this 
morning  :  the  Tuileries,  Carrousel  and  Garden,  the  Louvre,  the 
Bank,  and  Palais  Royal,  place  Vendome,  the  Champs  Elysees, 
Rue  St.  Honore,  and  several  streets. 

There  was  an  addition  to  the  royal  forces  of  6,700  men,  that 
had  arrived  since  yesterday,  so  that  the  total  number  of  the 
guards  amounted  to  11  battalions  of  infantry,  and  13  squadrons 
of  cavalry,  in  all  4,300  men.  The  eight  battalions  of  the  line, 
amounting  to  2,400,  were  of  no  service  to  the  royat  cause — 
one  battahon  of  guards  occupied  the  military  school.  It  will 
be  seen  that  the  military  were  this  day  to  be  put  on  the  defen- 
sive ;  It  remained  therefore  with  the  popular  forces,  to  make  the 


FRENCH   REVOLUTION,  THURSDAY,  JULY  29,  1830.  323 

attack,  who  were  this  day  strengthened  by  the  students  of  the 
celebrated  Polytechnic  school,  about  60  of  whom  scaled  the 
walls,  and  headed  the  civic  columns  by  whom  they  were  hailed 
(vith  the  greatest  enthusiasm. 

The  bands  from  the  Faubourgs  had  poured  into  the  Rue  St. 
Honore,  by  its  eastern  extremity,  and  a  fiece  and  murderous 
warfare  was  carried  on,  and  here,  the  Polytechnic  scholars  led 
the  citizens  to  the  charge.  The  battle  began  to  rage  fiercely 
at  several  points  near  Rue  St.  Honore. 

But  before  any  important  engagement  had  occurred,  to 
decide  the  fate  of  the  day,  the  defection  of  troops  occupying 
important  stations,  led  to  important  results.  About  half  past 
eleven,  the  troops  of  the  line,  at  the  place  Vendome,  and  the 
Palais  Bourbon,  negotiated  with  the  leaders  of  the  populace, 
when  new  barriers  rose  in  all  directions  round  these  stations. 
The  5th  and  53d  regiments  of  the  line,  stationed  in  the  place 
Vendome,  fraternized  with  the  people  :  this  ceremony  was  per- 
formed by  taking  off  their  bayonets,  and  shouldering  their 
muskets,  with  the  butts  in  the  air.  Marshal  Marmont  was 
immediately  apprized  of  the  defection  of  the  troojjs,  and  sent 
a  battalion  of  Swiss  guards  from  the  Louvre,  to  supply  their 
posts.  By  some  strange  oversight,  the  battalion  was  withdrawn, 
that  defended  the  whole  position,  the  Colonnade  and  gallery 
of  the  Louvre.  The  populace  soon  found  their  way  into  the 
garden,  called  L'Enfant,  in  front  of  the  Louvre,  and  there  meet- 
ing with  no  obstacles,  entered  the  lower  windows,  and  glass 
doors,  and  took  immediate  possession  of  the  interior  of  this  noble 
pile. 

From  the  windows  of  the  inner  court  the  Parisians  fired  upon 
the  battalion  beneath,  and  soon  every  window  in  the  great  gal- 
lery of  paintings  was  filled,  whence  they  fired  on  the  troops  in 
the  place  du  Carrousel,  and  soon  drove  the  Swiss  guards  away 
in  great  disorder.  There  were  also  two  squadrons  of  lancers  in 
the  inclosure  of  the  Tuileries,  exposed  to  the  fury  of  the  popu- 
lace.  The  Swiss  rushed  to  the  Triumphal  Arch,  and  getting 
through  it  with  great  irregularity,  threw  themselves  among  the 
lancers.  The  egress  from  this  railed  space  w^as  blocked  up  by 
the  latter,  but  through  it  the  troops  escaped  as  soon  as  possible. 
It  is  said,  two  platoons  of  firm  soldiers  might  have  driven  the 
popular  forces  away,  who  were  not  numerous  at  this  time.  It 
was  at  this  spot  (the  Triumphal  Arch)  that  Marshal  Marmont 
had  established  his  head  quarters  ;  and  so  unexpected  was  the 
attack  that  he  retreated  precipitately,  leaving  behind  him  120,000 
francs  (5,000?.)  in  bags.  His  retreat  was  by  the  Rue  de  Revoli, 
and  thence  round  into  the  garden  of  the  Tuileries.     From  the 


;  H  CHAPTER  XIII. 

"bx  rnce,  two  cannon  shot  were  fired  on  the  Parisians.  The 
^w.ss  formed  again,  but  only  to  retire  immediately,  by  order  of 
Khe  Marshal,  upon  St.  Cloud.  Thus  terminated  the  capture  of 
Ihe  Louvre  and  the  Tuileries. 

In  this  attack  on  the  Louvre,  the  strongest  column  was  com' 
manded  by  General  Gerard  ;  while  the  pupils  of  the  Polytechnic 
school  served  under  him,  advancing  at  the  head  of  their  respec- 
tive companies.  It  was  one  of  these  youths  that  led  the  attack 
on  one  of  its  gates  and  drove  it  in,  when  the  forces  rushed  im. 
petuously  on  the  guards.  Many  interesting  facts  are  related, 
showing  the  courage  and  noble  bearing  of  these  youths,  whose 
services  were  so  conspicuous  during  the  revolution.  It  was 
about  1  o'clock  when  the  Tuileries  were  captured.  In  the 
famous  gallery  of  the  Louvre,  the  splendid  coronation  picture 
of  Charles  X.  with  another  painting,  was  instantly  destroyed. 
The  rest  of  this  precious  collection  of  paintings  was  left  un- 
touched.  This  fact  reflects  the  highest  honor  on  the  Parisian 
multitude.  No  sooner  was  the  palace  of  the  Tuileries  in  pos- 
session of  the  populace,  than  every  thing  relating  to  the  Bour- 
bons met  with  immediate  destruction.  A  splendid  painting  of 
the  Duke  of  Ragusa,  (Marmont,)  was  torn  into  a  thousand 
pieces,  and  every  bust  and  painting  of  the  royal  family  destroyed 
with  the  exception  of  a  bust  of  Louis  XVIII.,  to  whom  Francs 
was  indebted  for  the  charter.  Upon  the  whole,  the  populace, 
even  to  the  poorest  of  the  working  classes,  displayed  a  remark 
able  degree  of  forbearance  from  pillage  when  in  possession  of 
the  riches  of  the  royal  palace. 

The  Swiss  barracks,  in  the  Rue  Babylone,  had  been  taken 
possession  of  before  the  capture  of  the  Tuileries.  Finding  this 
piace  defended  with  great  obstinacy,  it  was  set  on  fire  with 
straw  and  turpentine.  Major  Dufay,  the  commander  of  these 
quarters,  was  killed ;  when  the  flames  and  smoke  forced  the 
soldiers  to  make  a  desperate  sortie,  when  great  numbers  fell. 
Major  Dufay  was  an  officer  of  great  distinction,  and  had  served 
under  Napoleon  in  his  celebrated  campaigns. 

The  archbishop's  palace,  in  the  He  de  la  Cite,  was  assailed 
under  the  command  of  several  Polytechnic  scholars.  Findmg 
there,  unexpectedly,  ammunition  and  newly  sharpened  poinards, 
the  multitude  were  so  exasperated  that  the  work  of  destruction 
immediately  commenced.  Costly  articles  of  furniture  and  books 
in  gorgeous  bindings  were  torn  to  pieces,  scattered,  and  thrown 
from  the  windows  into  the  river. 

A  sanguinary  combat  was  kept  up  in  Rue  St.  Honore  with 
the  Swiss,  after  the  Louvre  and  Tuileries  were  taken.  This 
mcensed  thj  pv^^^ple  greatly — the  soldiers  almost  to  a  man  pe- 


FRENCH  REVOLUTION,  THURSDAY,  JULY  29,  1830.     325 

fvshed — the  carnage  there  was  horrible,  about  nine  hundred 
dead  bodies  being  found.  About  half  past  3,  P.  M.  the  last  of 
th<i  military  posts  in  the  city  of  Paris  surrendered. 

The  royal  troops  retreated  towards  St.  Cloud,  not  without 
meeting  with  obstructions  on  the  way,  and  being  somewhat 
harassed.  The  bridge  at  Neuilly  had  been  blocked  up  with 
heavy  carts  and  wagons  at  the  suggestion  of  Lafayette ;  and 
the  people  still  continued  to  fire  upon  the  exhausted  and  dispirited 
soldiers.  Thus  ended  the  three  days'  hard  conflict,  in  which 
the  citizens  of  Paris  had  fought  and  bled,  and  at  last  achieved 
a  glorious  victory. 

The  number  of  citizens  killed  and  wounded  in  these  three 
days'  fight,  has  been  variously  stated.  From  the  report  of  the 
committee  of  national  rewards,  appointed  to  investigate  the 
claims  of  the  wounded  and  of  the  relatives  of  the  slain,  it  ap- 
pears that  the  number  of  killed  and  those  who  died  from  wounds, 
was  788  ;  and  of  wounded  about  4,500. 

On  the  31st  of  July,  the  deputies  published  a  proclamation, 
declaring  that  they  had  invited  the  Duke  of  Orleans  to  become 
Lieutenant-General  of  the  kingdom.  At  noon  on  the  same  day, 
Louis  Phillippe  d 'Orleans  issued  a  proclamation  declaring  that 
he  hastened  to  Paris,  wearing  the  "  glorious  colors"  of  France, 
to  accept  the  invitation  of  the  assembled  deputies — to  become 
Lieutenant-General  of  the  kingdom.  A  proclamation  of  the 
same  date  appointed  provisional  commissaries  for  the  different 
departments  of  government :  these  were,  M.  Dupont  de  I'Eure, 
for  the  department  of  justice  ;  Baron  Louis,  of  finance  ;  General 
Gerard,  of  war ;  de  Rigny,  of  marine  ;  M.  Bignon,  of  foreign 
affairs ;  M.  Guizot,  of  public  instruction ;  M.  Casimir  Perrier, 
of  the  interior  and  public  works. 

The  same  day,  (31st,)  Charles  X.  and  his  household  fled  from 
St.  Cloud  to  Rambouillet.  Three  commissioners  were  sent  to 
treat  with  him :  these  were,  Messrs.  De  Schonen,  Marshal 
Maison,  and  O'Dillon  Barrett.  The  national  guard  advanced 
towards  Rambouillet,  which  brought  about  a  speedy  delivery 
bf  the  crown  jewels  from  Charles  X.  and  hastened  his  depar- 
ture. August  2d,  the  abdication  of  Charles  X.  and  the  Dau- 
phin, Louis  Antoine,  was  put  into  the  hands  of  the  Duke  of 
Orleans  ;  and  a  letter  from  Charles,  appointing  the  Duke  regent, 
and  ordering  him  to  proclaim  the  Duke  of  Bordeaux  King,  with 
the  title  of  Henry  V. 

The  chamber  of  deputies  met  on  the  3d  of  August.     On  the 

6th,  the  throne  of  France  was  declared  vacant  by  the  chamber 

of  deputies  (de  jure  et  de  facto.)     On  the  7th,  some  changes 

in  the  charter  were  adopted,  when  by  vote,  the  Duke  of  Orleans 

VOL.  II.  28 


326  CHAPTER  XIII. 

was  invited  to  become  King  of  the  French,  on  condition  of 
his  accepting  the  changes  made  in  the  constitution.  The  votes 
were  219  in  favor,  33  against :  the  whole  number  of  deputies 
is  430. 

On  the  8th,  the  chamber  in  a  body  went  to  the  Duke  of  Or- 
leans and  offered  him  the  crown,  which  he  accepted  ;  and  or 
the  9th,  Louis  PhiUippe  took  the  oath  to  support  thenewchartpr. 
In  these  measures,  a  majority  of  the  chamber  of  peers  present, 
concurred.  On  the  12th  of  August,  the  Moniteur  announced 
the  names  of  the  new  ministry,  from  the  moderate  hberal  party, 
as  follows :  Count  de  Mole,  foreign  affairs ;  General  Gerard, 
war  ;  Baron  Louis,  finance  ;  Guizot,  interior  ;  Gen.  Sebastiani, 
marine  ;  Dupont  de  I'Eure,  keeper  of  the  seals  and  minister  of 
justice  ;  Duke  de  Broglie,  president  of  the  ministry.  Lafitte 
and  Casimir  Perrier  were  also  appointed  ministers  of  state, 
without  any  special  departments. 

Charles  X.  was  permitted  to  retreat  unmolested  from  France. 
He,  with  his  household,  took  passage  in  two  American  ships  for 
England,  where  he  was  received  merely  as  a  private  individual, 
and  took  up  his  residence  at  Holy  rood- House,  Edinburgh,  where 
he  had  formerly  resided  during  the  sway  of  Napoleon. 

Many  changes  were  made  in  the  officers  of  the  French 
government,  in  accordance  with  the  spirit  of  the  times  and  for 
the  better  establishment  of  harmony  in  the  government.  Out 
of  86  prefects,  76  were  removed  ;  and  of  sub-prefects,  196  out 
of  277.  In  the  army,  65  general  officers  out  of  75  were 
changed,  65  colonels  removed,  and  almost  all  the  governors  of 
fortresses.  74  procureurers  were  dismissed.  Special  missions 
were  sent  to  the  ditferent  courts  of  Europe,  which  were  well 
received  by  all  of  them  except  Russia.  The  greatest  activity 
was  exerted  in  the  army  to  put  it  on  a  footing  to  meet  any  inva- 
sion, and  the  organization  of  the  national  guard  was  provided 
for.  Of  the  late  ministry,  Polignac,  Chantelauze,  and  Guernon 
de  Ranville,  underwent  a  trial  and  were  declared  guilty  of  trea- 
son and  sentenced  to  imprisonment  for  life,  with  the  penalty  of 
civil  death  to  Polignac.  He  and  his  colleagues  were  transferred 
to  the  prison  at  Ham. 

Nov.  3d,  the  ministry  was  changed,  and  Lafitte  advanced  to 
the  presidency  of  the  council  and  minister  of  finance.  March 
the  14th,  Casimir  Perrier  succeeded  him  in  office.  On  the  ISth 
of  October,  1831,  a  bill  passed  the  chamber  of  deputies  for 
abolishing  the  hereditary  rights  of  the  French  peerage :  to 
ensure  its  passage  in  the  chamber  of  peers,  Louis  Phillippe 
created  thirty-six  new  peers. 


REVOLrTION  IN  BELGIUM.  327 


Revolution  in  Belgium^ 

The  Belgians  soon  followed  the  example  of  the  French,  in 
the  career  of  revolution,  by  rising  and  expelling  a  king  that 
had  been  forced  upon  them  against  their  wishes.  The  congress 
of  Vienna,  it  will  be  recollected,  in  1814  and  1815,  severed  the 
Netherlands  from  France,  with  which  it  had  been  incorporated 
since  1795,  and  constituted  it  with  the  United  Provinces,  into 
one  political  body,  under  William,  Prince  of  Orange,  having  the 
title  of  King  of  the  Netherlands.  This  was  done  with  a  view 
of  giving  to  Germany  greater  security  against  the  pov/er  of 
France.  The  consent  of  the  Southern  Netherlands  was  never 
asked  or  given  ;  it  was  disposed  of  by  the  great  powers  as  a 
conqLicred  province  or  district.  William  attempted  to  unite  two 
million  of  Dutch  Calvinists,  engaged  principally  in  commerce, 
with  four  millions  of  Belgian  Catholics,  employed  in  agriculture 
and  manufactures — whose  interests,  language,  and  manners,  were 
widely  opposed  to  the  Dutch,  and  whose  language  was  disagree- 
able to  the  Belgians,  who  have  much  the  habits  and  feelings  of 
Frenchmen,  and  who  are  also  greatly  influenced  by  a  priesthood 
decidedly  hostile  to  all  innovations,  more  especially  when  coming 
from  the  Dutch  ;  so  that  the  attempt  to  blend  these  discordant 
feelings  and  conflicting  interests  entirely  failed.  And  the  policy 
of  William's  government  was  by  no  means  calculated  to  con- 
ciliate the  proud  and  rich  Belgians,  whom  he  treated  more  as 
vassals  than  subjects.  The  Belgians  had  many  just  causes  of 
complaint  against  the  arbitrary  measures  of  William's  govern- 
ment ;  they  were  burdened  with  heavy  taxes,  and  the  education 
of  their  children  was  taken  out  of  the  hands  of  the  natives. 
This  state  of  dissatisfaction  led  to  several  demands  contained  in 
an  address  for  this  purpose  ;  the  grievances  ennumerated  were 
fifteen.  They  demanded  an  equitable  division  of  public  offices 
between  the  two  countries,  liberty  of  language,  instruction,  and 
the  press,  and  the  responsibility  of  ministers.  After  various 
struggles,  an  insurrection  at  Brussels  broke  out  in  August,  1830, 
and  the  Belgians  made  a  formal  declaration  of  their  indepen- 
dence on  the  4th  October,  1830. 

The  representatives  of  the  European  powers,  viz  :  Austria, 
France,  Great  Britain,  Prussia,  and  Russia,  assembled  at  Lon- 
don, and  there  agreed  to  a  protocol  in  favor  of  an  armistice, 
and  directed  that  hostilities  should  cease  between  the  Dutch  and 
Belgians.  The  acknowledgment  of  the  independence  of  Bci- 
gium  was  announced  December  27th,  1830,  to  the  national  con 


328  CHAPTER  XIIl. 

gress  at  Brussels,  the  Belgians  having  decided  upon  a  constitu 
tional  monarchy  February  3d,  1831 — the  Duke  of  Nemours, 
the  second  son  of  Louis  Phillippe,  king  of  France,  was  elected 
to  fill  the  throne.  On  the  17th,  the  King  of  France  declined 
the  proffered  throne  on  behalf  of  his  son.  February  24th,  M 
Sulet  de  Chokier  was  elected  regent  of  Belgium.  January  4th, 
the  Belgium  congress  elected  Prince  Leopold  of  Saxe  Coburg 
for  their  king,  by  a  vote  of  152  to  34,  which  was  sanctioned  by 
the  five  great  powers.  The  new  king  made  his  entrance  into 
Brussels  July  21st,  and  took  the  oath  to  support  the  constitution. 
September  8th,  Leopold,  king  of  Belgium,  opened  his  first  par- 
liament. November  1st,  the  chamber  of  representatives  of 
Belgium  agreed  to  the  terms  of  settlement  between  Belgium 
and  Holland,  prescribed  by  the  London  conference,  and  on  the 
8d,  the  senate  agreed  to  the  same  by  a  vote  of  35  to  8. 


Revolution  in  Poland, 

The  spirit  of  Poland  has  never  been  crushed.  The  sword 
of  SuvarofF  and  the  snows  of  Siberia  had  diminished  the  num- 
ber of  her  brave  sons,  but  they  who  clung  to  the  soil  of  their 
country  and  they  who  devoted  their  lives  to  the  service  of  for- 
eigners  alike  breathed  vengeance  on  their  oppressors  and  ardent 
aspirations  for  the  restoration  of  Poland.  They  expected  much 
from  Napoleon — they  spent  their  best  blood  in  his  service,  and 
spent  it  in  vain.  Napoleon  rejected  the  opportunity  of  creating 
a  barrier  nation,  a  camp  of  devoted  soldiers,  which  would  for- 
ever have  secured  his  empire  on  its  weakest  side.  Still  the 
Poles  did  not  despair.  The  moderation  of  Alexander  made 
their  servitude  more  endurable  ;  but  no  sooner  had  Nicholas 
ascended  the  throne  of  Russia,  and  sanctioned  the  barbarities 
of  his  brutal  brother,  Constantine,  than  the  old  spirit  revived, 
if  indeed  that  spirit  had  ever  slept.  The  successful  example 
of  France,  followed  by  Belgium  and  Brunswick,  roused  them  to 
action  and  inspired  them  with  the  liveliest  hopes.  The  day  of 
vengeance  and  liberation  seemed  to  have  arrived.  France  well 
knew  that  Poland  alone  stood  between  her  and  the  already  ad- 
vancing legions  of  Russia,  and  her  emissaries  offered  every 
encouragement  to  the  patriot  Poles.  Lashed  to  fury  by  her  own 
wrongs,  listening  to  the  voice  of  hope,  and  encouraged  by  pro- 
mises of  support,  Poland  stood  in  the  gap,  encountered  the  first 
onset,  and  bore  up  against  it  manfully  and  well.     But  every 


EEVOLUTION  IN  POLAND.  829 

victory  weakened  her  strength — the  delusive  hope  of  assistance 
vanished,  and  Poland  has  sunk  in  iron-bound  despair.  How 
will  France,  saved  perhaps  by  the  sacrifice  of  Poland,  answei 
to  man  and  to  God  for  her  ingratitude  and  perfidy  ! 

It  was  on  the  29th  of  November,  1830,  that  the  insurrection 
at  Warsaw  burst  forth.  Secret  societies  had  existed  in  that 
city  since  1818,  for  the  express  purpose  of  securing  the  liberty 
and  nationality  of  Poland.  It  was  a  noble  design  of  her  patri- 
ots to  unite  again  under  one  government  those  portions  of  their 
unhappy  country  which  had  been  torn  assunder  and  despoiled 
by  the  rapacity  of  Russia,  Prussia,  and  Austria. 

As  early  as  1821,  Russia  had  commenced  a  system  of  pro- 
scription against  these  secret  societies  ;  and  in  1825,  a  conspi- 
racy was  kindled  into  flame  at  Petersburg,  which  it  was  thought 
could  be  traced  to  Warsaw.  The  societies  had  members 
throughout  Poland  and  Lithuania,  Podolia  and  Volhynia,  and 
even  the  old  provinces  of  the  Ukraine,  which  it  might  be  sup 
posed  had  long  since  lost  all  recollections  of  Polish  glory. 
These  associations  were  formed  during  the  reign  of  the  Empe- 
ror Alexander,  to  whom  some  of  the  patriots  had  vainly  looked 
for  a  better  state  of  things.  After  the  death  of  Alexander,  his 
successor,  Nicholas,  was  crowned  King  of  Poland  at  Warsaw, 
May,  1829. 

The  diet  assembled  in  1830,  and  in  spite  of  all  the  endeavors 
of  the  Emperor,  many  patriots  were  elected.  Nicholas  opened 
this  assembly  in  person,  but  failed  to  overawe  the  liberals  from 
impeaching  ministers  for  violating  the  charter.  This  liberal  diet 
was  closed  June  28th.*  Such  freedom  of  discussion  could  not 
be  endured  by  a  despotic  monarch,  whose  unvarying  aim  has 
been  to  tread  out  every  spark  of  liberty  in  the  northern  parts 
of  Europe.  The  Arch-Duke  Constantine  was  made  viceroy 
of  Poland,  and  by  his  monstrous  atrocities  became  universally 
detested  by  the  brave  and  generous  Poles. 

The  ardent  hopes  and  wishes  of  the  Polish  patriots  at  length 
burst  forth  into  flame.  At  7  in  the  evening,  the  hour  agreed 
upon,  fifl;een  intrepid  youths  sallied  forth  determined  to  seize 
on  Constantine,  whose  residence  was  about  two  miles  from 
Warsaw.  They  rushed  into  the  palace  of  the  Belvider,  where 
the  usual  guard  consists  of  sixty  men,  first  wounding  the  director 
of  poHce,  who  fled.     They  next  killed  General  Gendre,  a  Rus- 

*  The  constitution  of  Poland,  issued  by  Alexander,  Emperor  of  Russia, 
m  1815,  contained  many  important  provisions.  The  diet,  composed  of  two 
houses,  was  to  be  assembled  once  every  two  years  ;  yet  in  violation  of  this 
provision,  none  was  convoked  from  1820  to  1825,  and  only  one  under  the 
Emperor  Nicholas. 

VOL.  ir.  28* 


830  CHAPTER  XIII. 

sian  infamous  for  his  crimes.  The  struggle  alarmed  Constan- 
line,  who  instantly  rose  from  his  bed  and  escaped  undressed  by 
a  secret  door,  that  was  closed  after  him  by  his  valet  just  as  they 
were  on  the  point  of  reaching  him,  and  had  supposed  themselves 
secure  of  their  victim.  Constantine  instantly  fled  to  his  guards. 
Thus  disappointed,  this  band  retired  to  their  companions  in 
arms,  who  awaited,  at  the  bridge  of  Sobieski,  the  result  of  this 
movement.  In  returning  to  the  city  they  had  to  pass  the  bar- 
racks where  the  guards,  though  already  mounted,  were  unable 
to  attack  them  on  account  of  a  precautionary  measure  of 
Constantine  in  surrounding  the  barracks  with  a  deep  and  wide 
ditch,  passed  only  by  narrow  bridges.  The  guards  fired  upon 
the  insurgents ;  but  the  latter  were  so  advantageously  situ 
ated,  and  returned  the  fire  so  well,  that  they  killed  three  hun 
dred  of  the  guards,  and  retreated  with  the  loss  of  only  one  ot 
their  number. 

By  this  time  the  streets  of  Warsaw  were  filled,  some  houses 
had  been  set  on  fire,  and  the  cry  resounded  "  To  arms,  to  arms, 
Poland  is  up,  God  for  our  country  !"  The  inhabitants  rushed 
to  arms.  The  state  prisoners  were  liberated  ;  the  students  ol 
the  university  and  the  school  of  engineers  joined  the  insurrec- 
tion ;  the  arsenal  was  forced,  and  in  an  hour  and  a  half  from 
the  first  cry  of  liberty,  40,000  men  were  in  arms.  Soon  the 
fourth  Polish  regiment  joined  the  populace,  and  presently  the 
rest  of  the  Polish  soldiers.  When  Constantine  heard  of  this, 
he  fell  back  with  two  Polish  regiments  of  guards,  and  was  per- 
mitted to  retire  by  the  magnanimous  Poles  unmolested  to  the 
frontier.  Chlopicki  was  appointed  general  in  chief,  and  four 
days  afterwards  declared  dictator  by  the  provisional  govern- 
ment. Although  a  soldier  of  undisputed  bravery,  he  has  been 
blamed  for  suffering  the  grand  duke  to  escape  when  he  might 
have  captured  him,  and  for  losing  time  in  trying  to  negotiate 
with  the  Emperor  Nicholas. 

The  diet  that  assembled  in  twenty  days  after  the  breaking 
out  of  the  revolt,  confirmed  Chlopicki  dictator  ;  but  on  his  refus- 
ing  assent  to  the  manifesto  of  January  9tli,  1831,  in  which  the 
wrongs  of  Poland  were  so  feelingly  portrayed,  he  was  deposed. 
Instantly  a  supreme  national  council  was  formed,  and  Prince 
Adam  Czartoryski  appointed  president,  when  a  spirited  procla- 
mation was  issued,  informing  the  Polish  soldiers  that  Chlopicki 
had  resigned  the  glorious  task  of  conducting  them  to  combat. 

It  was  unfortunate  for  the  cause  of  Poland  that  Chlopicki  was 
made  dictator.  He  issued  an  order,  "  that  whoever  should  cross 
the  frontiers  of  the  kingdom,  and  attempt  to  raise  the  old  pro- 
vinces, should  be  punished  with  death."     Such  an  order  might 


REVOLUTION  IN  POLAND.  331 

have  been  issued  in  respect  to  Prussian  and  Austrian  Poland ; 
but  not  to  those  provinces  that  had  risen  to  shake  off  the  Rus- 
sian yoke,  and  Lithuania,  where  the  revolt  had  begun,  and  where 
thousands  impatiently  waited  the  signal  from  old  Poland,  to  rise- 
and  join  the  struggle  for  liberty.  This  order  of  Chlopicki  was 
regarded  by  the  patriots,  not  only  as  a  severe  check  to  the  enthu- 
siasm  of  those  provinces  waiting  to  rise  on  the  signal  being  given, 
but  as  almost  traitorous  to  their  cause.  That  time  was  lost  in 
fruitless  negotiation  that  should  have  been  devoted  to  kindling, 
far  and  wide,  the  spirit  of  revolt ;  and  in  the  most  active  prepa- 
ration to  meet  the  vast  resources  of  Russia,  which  had  refused 
all  terms  but  absolute  submission ;  and  the  preparations  in  the 
army  were  strangely  neglected.  These  proceedings  at  length 
caused  so  much  dissatisfaction  against  Chlopicki,  as  to  lead  to 
his  dismission. 

After  two  months  delay  the  inevitable  conflict  began ;  when 
the  Poles  marched  into  the  field,  "  with  half  the  force  which 
under  an  energetic  administration  it  would  have  wielded." 
They  ought  to  have  been  ready  to  have  commenced  offensive 
operations  with  their  enemy  at  a  distance,  instead  of  waiting 
for  him  on  their  own  soil,  exposed  to  his  insults  and  outrages. 
Russia  had  now  brought  into  the  field  against  Poland  200,000 
men,  while  Poland  had  but  about  50,000  equipped  for  the  fight 
— a  fearful  disparity  in  numbers.  Through  the  influence  of 
the  aristocracy,  the  command  of  the  army  was  given  to  Prince 
Radzvil. 

The  Russian  invading  army  rendezvoused,  on  the  20th  of 
January,  at  various  points  of  the  westera  frontier  of  the  empire. 
It  was  composed,  according  to  the  report  of  Field  Marshal 
Diebitsch,  of  105  battalions  of  infantry,  135  squadrons  of  cav- 
alry, with  396  pieces  of  artillery,  and  11  regiments  of  Cos- 
sacks.  The  army  crossed  the  Polish  frontiers  on  the  5th  of 
February.  The  advance  of  the  Polish  army  was  at  Biala,  the 
right  near  the  high  road  to  Warsaw,  the  left  at  Lomeza  on  the 
Narew.  On  the  advance  of  the  Russians,  the  Polish  corps 
fell  back,  the  right  on  Warsaw,  and  the  lefl  on  Modlin  and  Pul- 
tusk.  On  the  18th  of  February,  the  Russian  head-quarters  were 
established  at  Minsk,  ten  miles  from  Warsaw,  and  their  advance 
pushed  to  Melisna,  within  five  miles  of  that  city.  The  Russian 
left  rested  on  the  Vistula  above  Warsaw,  and  the  right  on  the 
Bug  near  its  junction  with  the  Narew,  its  centre  protected  with 
woods  and  artillery. 

On  the  18th,  the  Polish  army  of  50,000  men  had  its  right  on 
Grokow,  with  Praga  in  the  rear,  and  the  lefl  thrown  back  oppo- 
site the  right  wing  of  the  enemy. 


b32  CHAPTER  XIII. 

The  reconnoissances  of  the  19th  and  20th,  were  resisted  by 
the  Poles  and  led  to  a  severe  battle.  According  to  the  Russian 
•account,  the  heat  of  the  battle  was  during  the  early  part  of  the 
day  confined  to  the  left,  Count  Pahlen's  advanced  guard,  which 
was  attacked  as  soon  as  it  had  cleared  the  defile  near  Grokow, 
and  compelled  to  retreat  two  miles.  The  advanced  guard, 
under  General  Rosen,  was  attacked  at  the  same  time,  advancing 
from  Okanief.  On  the  arrival  of  Diebitsch,  he  sent  a  reinforce- 
ment under  General  Toll,  with  several  battalions  and  20  cannon, 
to  the  relief  of  Count  Pahlen.  A  furious  charge  was  now  made 
by  the  Russians,  with  Diebitsch  in  person,  which  changed  the 
fortune  of  the  day,  and  at  4  o'clock  the  Russian  wings  united, 
when  the  Poles  were  driven  from  the  field  of  battle.  For  three 
days  after  this  action  the  Russians  made  no  onward  movement, 
but  asked  an  armistice  for  the  burial  of  the  dead,  which  was 
granted. 

Early  on  the  25th,  the  Russians  having  received  a  reinforce- 
ment of  25,000  men,  felt  prepared  for  action.  They  drew 
forth  their  whole  army  in  front  of  the  forest,  and  commenced 
an  attack  on  the  Polish  left  wing,  near  Jublonna.  General 
Uminski  received  this  attack  with  great  bravery,  and  repulsed 
the  enemy,  taking  six  cannon,  which  he  spiked,  and  drove  the 
Russians  to  the  forest.  He  then  attacked  the  Russian  centre 
with  dreauful  slaughter,  and  drove  them  from  their  position. 
Diebitsch  had  calculated,  with  the  great  strength  of  his  left 
wing,  to  crush  the  Polish  right,  situated  near  Grokow,  under 
the  command  of  Chlopicki  and  Skrzynecki.  The  Russians 
made  six  tremendous  charges,  and  were  as  often  repulsed  with 
great  loss  ;  a  seventh  charge  made  against  a  new  regiment, 
put  it  in  disorder,  and  caused  it  partially  lo  retreat.  Two 
regiments  of  cuirassiers  were  then  sent  against  the  faltering 
regiments  :  the  latter  being  aided  with  the  Polish  lancers,  rallied, 
rushed  on  the  regiments  of  cuirassiers,  and  cut  them  to  pieces, 
of  which  only  forty  escaped,  twenty  prisoners  only  being  taken, 
mostly  officers,  and  among  them  the  commander  of  one  of  these 
regiments.  This  affair  decided  the  day,  when  the  Russians  were 
obliged  to  withdraw  from  the  field  of  battle  into  their  strong 
holds  in  the  forest  of  Milosna.  This  battle  was  fought  with 
great  fury.  General  Chlopicki,  who  was  in  the  centre,  had  two 
horses  killed  under  him,  and  was  wounded.  Forty  thousand 
Poles  here  withstood  the  shock  of  one  hundred  and  fifty  thou- 
sand of  their  enemy  ;  and  at  the  close  of  the  battle,  nearly 
15,000  Russians  lay  weltering  on  the  plain,  and  several  thousand 
prisoners  were  taken. 

After  the  battle,  Prince  Pvadzvil  gave  up  the  command  of  the 


REVOLUTION  IN  POLAND.  333 

army ;  when  Skrzynecki,  who  had  displayed  extraordinary 
bravery  and  skill,  was  chosen  commander  in  chief.  But  this 
step  led  to  the  rankling  enmity  of  Krukowiecki,  the  second  in 
command  to  Chlopicki,  who  thenceforward  meditated  revenge, 
plotted,  and  afterwards  proved  a  traitor  to  his  country. 

The  first  step  of  Skrzynecki  was  to  attempt  to  negotiate  with 
Diebitsch.  When  he  found  his  advances  repelled,  he  prepared 
for  the  unequal  struggle. 

The  ice  in  the  Vistula  had  now  broken  up,  and  the  swamps 
were  filled  from  the  melting  of  the  snow,  and  the  roads  were 
almost  impassable  for  artillery  and  cavalry.  Skrzynecki  now 
determined  to  act  on  the  off*ensive.  On  learning  that  Diebitsch 
had  divided  his  forces,  he  led  the  Polish  army  of  25,000  men 
to  Praga,  and  on  the  31st,  favored  by  the  darkness  of  the  night, 
approached  the  Russian  camp,  and  fell  upon  the  advanced 
guard  of  General  Geismar,  at  Wawar,  consisting  of  8,000  men, 
intrenched  in  a  very  strong  position,  which  force  he  nearly 
destroyed,  capturing  4,000  prisoners,  and  taking  a  number  of 
cannon.  General  Uminski  had  previously  been  despatched 
towards  Ostrolenka,  to  keep  in  check  the  corps  of  General 
Sacken  and  the  guards  who  were  advancing  there.  While  the 
Polish  advanced  guard  was  engaged  in  combat  at  Wawar, 
General  Rybinski,  with  his  division,  attacked  the  enemy's  right, 
and  carried  it  by  the  point  of  the  bayonet ;  destroyed  one  entire 
regiment,  and  forced  another  to  lay  down  their  arms.  The 
combat  lasted  two  hours.  Colonel  Romarino's  brigade  here  also 
distinguished  itself.  Skrzynecki  next  fell  upon  the  corps  of 
General  Rosen,  posted  at  Dembe  Wielski  with  20,000  men,  who 
were  unable  to  withstand  the  impetuous  attack  of  the  Poles. 
The  Russians  fled  by  way  of  Minsk,  and  made  several  efforts 
to  sustain  their  positions  as  they  received  reinforcements,  but 
were  unable  to  sustain  them.  It  was  at  5  o'clock,  P.  M.  when 
they  arrived  at  Dembe  Wielski,  a  position  strongly  fortified,  and 
the  resistance  was  obstinate.  But  the  force  of  the  artillery  from 
the  centre,  and  the  vigor  of  the  assault,  completely  routed  the 
Russians,  who  fled  with  precipitation. 

By  this  masterly  movement  of  the  Polish  commander  in  chief, 
20,000  Russians  were  throw^n  hors-de-combat,  and  many  superior 
officers  were  captured  during  this  day,  so  glorious  to  the  Polish 
arms,  besides  taking  two  standards,  fifteen  wagons  filled  with 
ammunition,  some  thousand  muskets,  and  fifteen  pieces  of  can- 
non This  victory  occasioned  but  small  loss  to  the  Poles,  owing 
to  the  rapidity  and  surprise  with  which  their  movements  were 
executed.  The  regiment  of  scythemen  (leucheurs)  having 
demanded  arms,  the  muskets  left  on  the  field  of  battle  were 


334  CHAPTER  XJH 

assigned  them.  The  combat  lasted  till  10  at  night.  The  army 
had  then  been  actively  engaged,  fighting  and  marching,  twenty 
hours. 

On  the  9th,  the  Polish  army  gained  a  considerable  victory, 
taking  several  cannon,  and  from  3,000  to  4,000  prisoners  ; 
among  them  were  300  officers  of  different  ranks.  The  head- 
quarters on  the  10th  were  at  Seidlec  ;  and  on  the  same  day, 
at  that  place,  Marshal  Diebitsch  succeeded  in  uniting  all  his 
forces.  From  this  time  the  Polish  cause  appears  to  have  de- 
clined. 

General  Dwernecki  with  a  valiant  corps  entered  Volhynia, 
surrounded  by  Russian  corps  under  Generals  De  Witt,  Keuts, 
and  Rudiger.  Dwernecki  passed  the  Bug  on  the  10th,  and  on 
the  11th  routed  some  Russian  forces,  took  a  number  of  prison- 
ers, some  transports,  and  baggage.  The  left  wing  of  the  Rus- 
sian army,  stationed  at  Kock,  upon  Veprez  and  Rudjew,  fell 
back,  and  Marshal  Diebitsch,  baffled  in  his  attempts,  retired 
with  the  army  across  the  river  Bug,  alarmed  for  his  safety. 
Insurrections  spread  in  his  rear,  in  the  provinces  of  Lithuania 
and  Volhynia.  A  violent  insurrection  broke  out  at  Wilna  on 
the  28th  of  March. 

General  Chrzanowski,  with  8,000  men,  cut  his  way  through 
the  Russians,  and  penetrated  as  far  as  the  fortress  of  Zamosc. 
The  greatest  enthusiasm  now  spread  through  the  Polish  province 
of  Samogitia.  This  expedition  of  Chrzanowski,  by  forcing  his 
way  through  the  enemy's  detachments,  was  one  of  great  daring. 
In  three  days  he  defeated  the  Russians  three  times,  and  took 
800  prisoners.  These  movements  in  Volhynia  occasioned 
great  uneasiness  to  the  Russians,  and  obliged  them  to  change 
their  plan — that  of  attempting  Warsaw  in  front  by  Praga.  On 
the  last  days  of  April,  Diebitsch  retired  with  the  Russian  army 
beyond  the  river  Bug.  .  The  barbaritieii  of  the  Russians  during 
this  warfare  against  the  patriots  in  Lithuania,  were  of  the  most 
revolting  kind. 

April  26th,  General  Dwernecki  surrendered  his  force,  con- 
sisting of  4,000  men  and  17  pieces  of  cannon,  to  the  Austrians. 
He  had  been  pursued  by  a  superior  force,  and  was  under  the 
necessity  of  passing  into  the  Austrian  dominions.  Diebitsch, 
with  the  principal  Russian  army,  retreated  in  the  direction  of  the 
Bug  and  Narew,  to  gain  the  Prussian  frontier,  to  relieve  the  suf- 
f(^ring  state  of  the  army.  At  Thorn  there  was  a  great  supply  of 
provisions,  ammunition,  &;c.,  waiting  his  approach. 

The  Polish  government  issued  a  manifesto  against  Prussia 
for  her  shameful  violation  of  the  principle  of  non-interference. 
This  conduct  of  Prussia  destroyed  all  the  advantages  gained  by 


REVOLUTlOiS'   IN   TOLANi).  335 

Polish  valor.  The  Prussians  furnished  supplies  of  every  kind, 
and  constructed  bridges  over  the  Vistula  for  the  passage  of  the 
Russian  army.  In  many  instances  when  the  Russian  troops 
were  forced  by  the  Polish  soldiers  into  the  Prussian  dominions, 
they  were  suffered  to  return  with  their  arms,  while  the  Poles  in 
all  similar  cases  were  retained  prisoners. 

The  conduct  too  "of  Austria  was  most  outrageous.  While  the 
brave  Dwernecki,  the  "  cannon  provider,"  was  withstanding  a 
greatly  superior  force  on  the  Austrian  frontier,  the  Russians 
passed  over  neutral  ground  to  outflank  him.  He  was  followed  in 
liis  retreat  by  the  Russians  who  were  allowed  to  retire,  while 
tlie  brave,  patriotic,  and  devoted  champions  of  Poland  were 
obliged  to  surrender  themselves  prisoners  of  war  to  the  Austrian 
forces  stationed  on  the  frontier. 

While  a  Polish  corps  was  at  Minsk,  Skryznecki  united  all  his 
corps  on  the  left,  crossed  the  Bug,  and  forced  his  way  to  Ostro- 
lenka,  a  flank  movement  of  80  miles,  and  defeated  the  Russian 
guards  at  Tychosin.  He  then  sent  forward  300  Polish  officers 
to  Lithuania,  there  to  organize  the  patriot  forces. 

The  sanguinary  battle  of  Ostrolenka  was  fought  on  the  26th 
May,  in  which  20,000  Poles  were  opposed  to  60,000  Russians. 
This  battle  was  fought  with  an  inveteracy  unexampled — quarter 
was  out  of  the  question.  The  Poles  having  succeeded  in  pass- 
ing to  the  right  bank  of  the  Narew,  they  attempted  to  destroy 
tlie  bridge.  This  they  were  unable  to  effect,  as  the  Russians 
were  protected  T^y  a  numerous  artillery  placed  on  the  opposite 
bank.  Several  regiments  of  Poles,  under  a  most  galling  fire, 
attempted  to  arrest  the  progress  of  the  Russians.  The  combat 
was  for  a  long  time  one  of  slaughter  ;  they  fought  man  to  man, 
and  thousands  were  killed  by  being  thrown  into  the  dyke  which 
passes  along  the  marshy  shore  of  the  Narew.  The  battle  did 
not  end  till  12  o'clock  at  night,  when  the  exhausted  Russians 
retrograded  as  far  as  the  bridge,  and  the  PoHsh  army  commenced 
a  retrograde  movement  unmolested,  and  fell  back  on  Praga. 
The  loss  of  the  Poles  in  this  battle  has  been  stated  at  4,000  men. 
The  Russians  suffered  very  severely  and  had  three  generals 
killed.  The  Russian  guards  are  said  to  have  displayed  great 
bravery  in  the  action.  It  was  the  object  of  Diebitsch  to  cut  off" 
the  retreat  of  the  Poles.  The  second  Polish  corps  under  Genera] 
Lubienski  displayed  great  gallantry  on  the  25th  :  it  forced  its 
way,  at  the  point  of  the  bayonet  in  a  retreat  from  Chirchnowiec, 
through  40,000  Russians. 

It  was  subsequently  ascertained  that  a  correspondence  had 
been  kept  up  by  traitors  and  Russian  agents  in  Warsaw,  through 
whose  means  Diebitsch  was  informed  of  the  plans  of  the  Polish 


33«3  CHAPTER  XIII. 

commander  m  chief,  and  led  to  the  disastrous  battle  of  Ostro-' 
lenka.  On  the  same  day  that  the  battle  of  Ostrolenka  was 
<buglit,  General  Chlapowski  gained  a  victory  over  the  Russiaas 
av  Mariampol,  commanded  by  General  Sacken. 

The  Russian  commander  in  chief,  Diebitsch,  died  suddenly  ai. 
Klechewo,  June  19th,  at  that  time  the  head-quarters  of  the  Ru.!»- 
sian  army.  He  had  been  superseded  a  short  time  previous  to 
his  death  by  Paskewitch,  who  had  greatly  distinguished  himself 
in  the  war  against  the  Persians.  Shortly  afterwards,  the  Arch 
Duke  Constantine  died  very  suddenly. 

The  Russian  arms  under  Diebitsch  in  the  campaign  against 
enfeebled  and  distracted  Turkey,  acquired  a  fictitious  celebrity ; 
but  Russia  has  been  entirely  shorn  of  this  fame  by  a  handful  of 
Polish  patriots.  Had  it  not  been  for  this  untoward  war  againsi 
Poland,  Diebitsch's  name  might  have  descended  to  posterity  as  a 
renowned  warrior.  Poor  Diebitsch  became  the  laughing  stock 
of  all  Europe  ;  and  the  boasted  prowess  of  Russia  has  since  been 
viewed  in  a  very  different  aspect.  Russia,  in  the  height  of  her 
pride  and  in  the  full  confidence  of  her  strength,  was  about  to 
march  her  legions  upon  France ;  when  the  breaking  out  of  the 
Polish  revolution  afforded  her  sufficient  employment  nearei 
home.  If  Poland,  at  the  commencement  of  the  revolution,  had 
succeeded  in  estabhshing  an  energetic  government,  and  possessed 
a  leader  fully  competent  to  direct  her  valiant  soldiers,  the  over- 
Dearing  power  and  haughty  pride  of  Russia  might  have  been 
humbled  to  the  dust. 

General  Gielgud  was  sent  with  a  force  of  8,000  men  into 
Samogitia,  a  district  of  Lithuania,  and  was  for  a  time  success- 
ful ;  but  was  defeated  in  an  attack  on  Wilna,  and  forced  to 
retreat.  On  the  13th  of  July,  the  remains  of  the  corps  of  Giel- 
gud and  Chlapowski,  reduced  to  2,500  men,  passed  over  into  the 
Prussian  territory,  when  General  Gielgud  was  shot  by  a  Polish 
officer. 

General  Dembinski  had  entered  Lithuania  at  Olitta,  about 
55  miles  west  of  Wilna,  with  corps  to  aid  the  insurgents.  The 
failure  of  Gielgud  before  Wilna  obliged  him  to  retreat — he  forced 
his  way  through  the  Russians,  and  arrived  safely  in  Warsaw. 
This  retreat  was  a  masterly  display  of  generalship. 

June  29th,  a  conspiracy  was  this  day  timely  discovered  in 
Warsaw,  which  was  to  set  the  Russian  prisoners,  thirteen  thou- 
sand in  number,  at  liberty.  Several  disaffected  officers  attempted 
to  bring  about  a  counter-revolution  to  favor  the  Russians.  It 
was  to  be  accomplished  as  follows  :  the  prisoners  having  been 
allowed  to  go  at  large,  they  were  to  be  supplied  with  arms ;  and 
on   a  signal  being  given  the  powder  mill  was  to  be  blown  up, 


Stormi  ig  of  Warsaw.    Vol.  2,  p.  340.- 


Fall  of  Missolonghi.     Vol.  2,  p.  354. 


REVOLUTION  IN  POLAND.  337 

when  a  general  attack  was  to  be  made  on  the  citizens  and 
national  guard.  General  Janowski,  one  of  the  traitors,  to  save 
himself,  made  the  discovery  of  this  horrid  conspiracy  just  in 
time  to  save  Warsaw. 

On  the  14th  July,  General  Chrzanski  was  attacked  by  Gene- 
ral Rudiger's  corps,  on  this  side  of  Minsk,  five  miles  from  War- 
saw ;  when  the  Russians  were  defeated  and  forced  to  retreat, 
having  3,000  men  killed,  900  prisoners  taken,  and  1000  muskets. 
On  the  12th,  the  main  army  of  Paske witch  was  encamped  be- 
tween Sisno  and  Kikal,  and  on  the  same  day  a  great  part  of  it 
passed  the  Vistula  between  Warsaw  and  the  Prussian  frontier, 
having  received  from  Thorn  a  great  number  of  barges  and 
materials  for  bridges.  The  Prussians,  to  facilitate  the  passing 
of  the  Russians,  had  constructed  a  bridge  over  the  Vistula  at 
Drewenca. 

On  the  13th  of  August,  General  Skryznecki  resigned  the 
command  of  the  army  to  General  Dembinski,  compelled,  by  the 
force  of  circumstances,  to  do  so,  in  order  that  faction  might 
have  no  further  pretext  to  injure  his  country.  His  letter  of 
resignation  on  this  occasion,  is  full  of  generous  devotion  to  the 
cause  of  his  country.  The  patriotic  club,  irritated  with  the 
measures  of  government  and  dissatisfied  at  not  seeing  General 
Janowski  condemned,  determined  to  take  violent  measures.  To 
these  acts  they  were  instigated  by  the  base  Krukowiecki.  On 
the  15th  August,  at  8  A.  M.  the  club  formally  demanded  that 
Skryznecki  should  be  ordered  to  Warsaw.  They  then  pro- 
ceeded to  the  castle,  that  was  protected  by  200  of  the  national 
guard,  who  made  scarcely  any  resistance.  On  the  same  day, 
the  patriotic  club  demanded  the  death  of  Janowski  ;  and  on 
the  16th,  the  state  prisoners  concerned  in  the  conspiracy  for 
a  counter-revolution,  were  murdered  in  their  rooms  by  the 
clubists.  Thirty-five  persons  were  thus  put  to  death  without 
ceremony  ;  among  them  were  Generals  Janowski,  Bulkowski, 
Plurtig,  Salacki,  and  Benthouski,  the  Russian  chamberlain,  Fus- 
tiane,  &c. 

During  the  night,  General  Krukowiecki  was  appomted 
governor  of  the  city.  He  sent  for  a  reinforcement,  and  his 
first  measures  were  to  put  a  stop  to  these  horrors.  August 
17th,  the  government  was  dissolved,  and  Krukowiecki  was 
placed  at  the  head  of  the  new  government,  with  very  extended 
powers.  He  caused  the  arrest  of  the  president  and  ten  of  the 
club,  and  appointed  General  Prondzynski  to  the  chief  command 
m  the  army. 

From  the  time  that  Krukowiecki  came  into  power,  he  took 
measures   to  deliver  Warsaw  to  the  Russians,  and  made  e"C",y 

VOL.  II.  29 


338  CHAPTER  XIII. 

attempt  to  induce  the  diet  to  demand  an  amnesty,  and  sent  the 
main  part  of  the  Pohsh  army  to  the  right  side  of  the  Vistula, 
when  the  thunder  of  the  Russian  artillery  was  breaking  over  the 
devoted  city.  The  proposals  of  Krukowiecki  were  repelled  by 
the  diet  with  indignation,  who  declared  to  the  suspicious  deputies, 
*'  rather  will  we  die  here  in  our  places  than  stain  the  honor  of 
our  country."  The  traitor  was  deposed  at  midnight  and  a  new 
governor  of  the  city  named,  which  gave  new  vigor  to  the  faint- 
ins;  defenders  of  Warsaw. 

On  the  6th  of  September,  at  daybreak,  the  Russian  army  of 
100,000  men  and  300  pieces  of  cannon,  advanced  to  storm  War- 
saw, which  was  defended  with  great  heroism.  On  the  8th,  aftei 
two  days  hard  fighting,  it  surrendered  to  Field  Marshal  Paske- 
witch.  The  Russians  had  20,000  slain  in  storming  Warsaw. 
The  Poles  lost  about  half  that  number  in  its  defence. 

The  government  and  the  most  distinguished  citizens  retii'ed 
with  the  main  body  of  the  army,  under  the  new  commander  in 
chief,  Rybinski,  upon  Modlin  and  Plozk.  The  army,  however, 
kept  in  three  divisions  instead  of  uniting,  which  could  thus  offer 
but  a  feeble  resistance  to  the  Russian  forces.  As  a  last  resource, 
the  Poles  crossed  the  frontiers  into  the  Austrian  and  Prussian 
dominions.  Upwards  of  1500  of  the  most  distinguished  leaders 
of  the  Polish  revolution  were  arrested  and  imprisoned  at  War- 
saw ;  and  to  complete  the  measures  of  oppression  and  vengeance, 
the  Russian  troops  fired  upon  the  prisoners  confined  in  one  of 
the  wings  of  the  prison,  under  the  pretence  of  a  revolt  among 
the  prisoners,  though  it  was  known  that  three-fourths  of  these 
were  imprisoned  for  political  offences. 

Of  twenty-two  Polish  generals  that  became,  in  a  manner,  pri 
soners  under  the  amnesty,  the  greater  part  were  sent  to  distant 
parts  of  the  Russian  empire,  and  but  four  returned  to  Poland. 
The  soldiers  were  marched  by  thousands  to  Siberian  exile,  linked 
together  by  the  wrists  to  bars  of  iron.  The  nobles  were  treated 
in  the  same  ignominious  manner,  with  their  heads  shaved,  and 
consigned  to  the  dungeons  and  mines  of  Siberia ;  and  the  chil- 
dren were  torn  from  their  mothers,  and  carried  off  to  glut  the 
vengeance  of  the  Autocrat  of  all  the  Russias. 

Numbers  of  the  patriots  that  escaped  after  the  fall  of  Warsaw, 
when  the  army  passed  the  frontiers,  have  gone  into  voluntary 
exile,  and  are  now  mourning  over  the  calamities  of  their  country, 
the  loss  of  their  homes,  their  wives,  and  their  children. 

The  Prussian  government  treated  the  Polish  refugees  that  fled 
into  her  territory  with  horrible  brutality,  in  order  to  force  these 
now  miserable  and  heart-broken  outcasts  into  the  iron  fangs  of 
Russian  despotism. 


GREEK  REVOLUTION.  339 

The  recital  of  the  barbarous  deeds  perpetrated  by  insatiate 
and  faithless  Russia  on  completing  the  subjugation  of  Poland, 
cannot  fail  to  fill  with  sorrow  the  breast  of  every  friend  to  hu- 
manity :  and  it  sickens  the  heart  to  think,  that  these  wretched 
and  trodden-down  Poles  are  now  perhaps  for  ever  beyond  the 
reach  of  all  human  aid.  The  French  government,  during  the 
Polish  struggle,  a  period  of  intense  interest  to  the  fervent  and 
sympathizing  Frenchmen,  showed  the  blackest  ingratitude  and 
perfidy  towards  the  chivalrous  Poles.  It  was  in  vain  that  the 
good  Lafayette  lifted  up  his  imploring  voice  in  their  behalf  to 
the  citizen  King.  It  would  seem,  indeed,  as  if  the  nationality 
of  Poland  was  now  for  ever  blasted  ;  and  the  survivors  of  this 
once  noble  race  of  warriors  and  patriots  were  destined,  by  seve- 
ral of  the  arbitrary  governments  of  Europe,  to  be  hunted  down 
like  beasts  of  prey. 

Russia  is  at  present  erecting  a  citadel  at  Warsaw,  intended 
to  overawe  the  Poles  for  the  future.  The  cost  of  the  building, 
20,000,000  florins,  is  to  be  extorted  from  the  oppressed  citizens 
of  Warsaw. 


CHAPTER  XIV. 


Greek  Revolution.    War  hetween  Russia  and  Turkey.    England, 
from  A.  D.  1816,  to  the  passing  of  the  Reform  Bill,  A.D.  1832. 

Among  the  extraordinary  events  of  the  19th  century,  there  is 
none  that  occasioned  more  thrilling  interest  at  the  time,  than  the 
protracted  and  fearful  struggle  made  by  the  modern  Greeks  to 
gain  their  independence. 

The  classic  soil  of  Athens  and  Sparta,  Thebes  and  Corinth, 
for  the  last  four  centuries  had  been  profaned  by  Turkish  despot- 
ism.  It  was  the  same  soil  that,  2500  years  ago,  was  the  seat 
of  learning  and  the  abode  of  free  institutions.  It  was  the  land 
of  Homer  and  Demosthenes,  Solon  and  Pericles,  that,  after  the 
slumber  of  ages,  was  awakened  to  new  life. 

The  struggle,  of  which  we  are  about  to  give  a  faint  and  rapid 
sketch,  is  the  one  made  by  the  modern  Greeks  to  achieve  their 
country's  independence,  and  elevate  Greece  to  an  equal  rank 
with  civilized  nations.  And  though  this  people  had  been  so  long 
under  the  most  debasing  slavery,  they  nevertheless  displayed, 
during  this  momentous  struggle,  numerous  deeds  of  valor  worthy 
their  renowned  ancestors. 

Before  entering  on  this  eventful  revolution,  which  began  in 
the  Morea,  March  23,  1821,  it  will  be  necessary,  in  order  fully 
to  understand  its  origin,  to  state,  that  some  years  before  th 


340  CHAPTER  XIV. 

commencement  of  hostilities  the  patriots  of  Greece  founded,  in 
1814,  an  association  called  the  Hetaria.  There  was  a  society- 
established  at  Vienna  the  same  year,  of  which  Count  Capo 
d'Istrias  was  one  of  the  first  members ;  but  it  did  not  publicly 
avow  any  political  designs.  The  head-quarters  of  this  society 
were  at  St.  Petersburg,  whither  many  of  the  most  distinguished 
Greeks  repaired  under  the  pretext  of  having  commercial  busi- 
ness  to  transact. 

The  Greeks  it  appears  had,  at  different  times,  been  called 
upon  by  Russia  to  shake  off  the  Turkish  yoke,  namely,  in  the 
years  1769,  1786,  and  1806  ;  and  a  society,  avowedly  for  the 
liberation  of  Greece,  was  formed  in  Paris  in  1809.  It  was  found 
that  the  beginning  made  in  1814,  was  too  early  to  insure  suc- 
cess. A  people  who  had  long  been  kept  in  an  abject  state  of 
slavery,  neeHed  first  a  due  preparation  and  a  general  diffusion 
of  knowledge ;  and  the  plans  for  such  a  weighty  undertaking 
required  to  be  well  matured. 

The  intercourse  kept  up  with  France,  was  of  great  conse- 
quence  in  forwarding  the  cause  of  liberty  in  Greece  ;  and  the 
revival  of  literature  and  the  spread  of  science,  brought  with  it 
an  ardent  desire  for  their  country's  freedom.  This  was  further 
promoted  by  giving  them  the  works  of  Goldsmith,  Franklin's 
Poor  Richard,  Fenelon,  and  Montesquieu,  which  were  translated 
into  modern  Greek  at  Athens,  Saloniki,  Smyrna,  &c.  ;  and 
schools  were  established,  that  were  subsequently  swept  away 
by  the  war. 

The  Hetaria,  or  society  of  friends,  kept  up  an  active  corres- 
pondence with  the  Greeks  in  different  parts  of  Europe,  who 
hastened  to  join  it  ;  while  some  men  of  the  highest  standing 
visited  St.  Petersburg  to  further  their  designs,  and  even  looked 
to  Russia  for  aid.  When  this  hope  was  found  to  be  fallacious, 
the  Greeks  resolved  to  begin  themselves.  The  first  movement 
was  made  by  Czerni  George,  in  1817,  an  exiled  chief  of  Servia, 
who  was  suddenly  to  appear  in  Servia,  his  native  province, 
while  Galati,  and  other  Grecian  chiefs,  were  to  raise  the  stan 
dard  in  the  south  of  Greece,  and  the  Morea.  Czerni  George, 
the  Servian,  was  treacherously  betrayed  and  murdered  on  hia 
way  by  Milosh,  a  relative  and  former  friend,  and  his  head 
sent  to  Constantinople.  Count  Galati  retired  to  Bucharest,  and 
there  shortly  afterwards  died.  The  next  attempt  was  arranged 
for  1825. 

In  the  mean  time  some  chiefs,  burning  with  desire  for  the 
glorious  cause  of  freedom,  began  the  revolution.  These  were 
M.  Suzzo,  hospodar  of  Moldavia,  one  of  the  Hetarists  ;  Alexan- 
der Ypsilanti,  a  major  general  in  the  Russian  army,  and  Pnnce 


GREEK  REVOLUTION.  34 J 

Catacuzene.  Ypsilanti  was  to  begin  hostilities  beyond  the 
Danube,  while  all  Greece  was  to  be  summoned  with  a  procla- 
mation ;  and  to  render  their  measures  more  certain,  an  explosion 
was  to  take  place  at  Constantinople. 

Ypsilanti  began  before  Moldavia  was  prepared  to  co-operate. 
His  proclamation  was  energetic,  and  called  on  all  Greece  to 
shake  off  the  Turkish  yoke.  It  roused  the  Moldavians,  and 
Ypsilanti  took  possession  of  Bucharest,  the  capital  of  Walachia. 
containing  80,000  inhabitants.  But  Russia  disclaimed  all  parti- 
cipation in  a  manifesto  which  she  published.  Suzzo  gave  up 
the  command  in  Moldavia,  and  the  plot  at  Constantinople  was 
frustrated.  A  chieftain  who  joined  Ypsilanti,  was  suspected  of 
treachery.  He  was  arrested  and  beheaded.  This  was  Vladi- 
miresco  ;  and  the  price  of  his  correspondence  with  the  Porte 
was,  that  he  was  to  be  made  hospodar. 

Ypsilanti  was  now  forced  to  retire  from  Bucharest  before 
10,000  men,  who  entered  the  city  without  firing  a  shot.  The 
Hetarists  who  fell  into  the  hands  of  the  Turks  were  impaled 
alive,  and  numbers  of  children  hung  up  by  their  feet  along  the 
roads.  The  monasteries  were  entered,  and  the  inmates  butch- 
ered.  Prince  Ypsilanti  retreated  to  Tergovist,  followed  by  the 
Turks.  A  battle  was  fought  at  the  monastery  of  Dragachan, 
on  the  morning  of  June  17th.  The  Turkish  infantry  charged 
with  loud  shouts,  but  were  repulsed  with  the  bayonet.  A  second 
charge  was  repelled  with  equal  firmness.  At  this  juncture,  the 
cowardice  and  treason  of  Caravia,  an  officer  of  cavalry, 
changed  the  fate  of  the  patriot  army.  He  turned  round  and 
fled,  and  immediately  the  whole  army  was  in  confusion.  Gior- 
gaki,  with  his  corps,  displayed  great  firmness  during  the  route. 
The  sacred  band  of  about  400  or  500  young  Greeks  stood  firm, 
while  the  rest  fled  and  crossed  the  Oltau  ;  these  sustained  the 
shock  of  1500  Turkish  cavalry.  They  sold  their  lives  nobly, 
determined  to  fall  rather  than  yield.  The  disparity  in  numbers 
was  too  great  for  success,  when  about  400  fell.  Such  an  exam- 
ple of  patriotism  had  a  most  salutary  effect  on  the  Greeks.  The 
army  of  Prince  Ypsilanti  being  annihilated,  he  repaired  to 
Trieste,  intending  to  rejoin  his  countrymen  in  the  Morea.  The 
Austrian  government  seized  him,  and  imprisoned  him  at  the 
castle  of  Montgatz,  in  Hungary. 

When  the  intelligence  of  the  insurrection  in  Moldavia  reached 
Constantinople,  the  Sultan  issued  immediate  orders  to  disarm  all 
the  Greeks  in  the  empire,  and  a  war  of  extermination  at  the 
capital  commenced.  The  Greek  patriarch,  Gregorius,  was  mur- 
dered on  the  22d  April,  the  day  of  the  greatest  festival  of  the 
Greek  church,  and  his  body  dragged  by  Jews  through  the  streets 

VOL.  II.  29* 


842  CHAPTER  XIV. 

of  Constantinople.  Several  other  ecclesiastics  shared  the  same 
fate,  and  a  number  of  Greek  churches  were  destroyed,  which 
exasperated  the  Greeks  to  a  degree  of  desperation,  who  saw 
that  nothing  short  of  extermination  awaited  them.  The  priests 
in  the  islands  of  the  Morea,  from  the  atrocious  acts  at  Constan- 
tinople, saw  themselves  doomed  to  certain  destruction.  They 
therefore  exerted  themselves  strenuously,  to  inspire  the  people 
to  resistance  and  vengeance. 

By  the  1st  of  April,  the  excitement  became  general.  The 
mhabitants  of  Patras  were  disaffected  by  the  exorbitant  levies 
of  the  Turks.  Mutual  distrust  began  between  Greeks  and 
Turks — each  prepared  for  the  worst.  Hostilities  were  first 
opened  by  the  inhabitants  of  Suda,  a  large  village  near  Cala- 
vrita,  in  the  northern  part  of  Arcadia.  At  Patras,  the  Greeks 
refused  to  give  up  their  arms,  when  the  Turks  fired  with  cannon 
upon  the  place  from  the  fortress,  and  soon  took  possession  of  it. 
Germanos,  archbishop  of  Patras,  assembled  an  army  of  4,000 
peasants,  and  took  the  city  from  the  Turks.  The  scene  that 
followed  ended  in  the  destruction  of  three  hundred  houses  and 
pillage. 

In  the  islands  of  Hydra,  Spezzia,  and  Ipsara,  the  greatest 
activity  was  displayed  in  fitting  out  ships  of  war,  the  united  force 
of  which  was  eight}^  or  ninety  vessels  of  10  or  12  guns  each ; 
and  fifly  or  sixty  smaller  vessels  were  supplied  by  other  islands. 
Tlie  flag  hoisted  by  the  Greeks,  consisted  of  eight  blue  and 
white  horizontal  stripes.  The  superior  activity  of  the  Greek 
navy  was  soon  shown. 

The  first  Turkish  fleet  left  the  Dardanelles  on  the  19th  of 
May,  and  was  followed  by  the  Greek  fire-ships.  On  the  8th  of 
June,  they  burned  a  ship  of  the  line,  ashore  near  Tenedos — 
compelling  the  Turkish  fleet  to  put  back  to  the  Dardanelles. 

The  Ipsariots  landed  on  the  coast  of  Asia  Minor,  and  took 
possession  of  Cydinia,  which  was  soon  after  retaken  by  the 
Turks,  and  the  inhabitants  murdered  and  driven  away  to  the 
number  of  35,000.  It  must  be  kept  in  mind  during  this  strug- 
gle, that  the  islanders  displayed  higher  traits  of  patriotism  and 
valor  than  the  Moreots ;  in  whicli  the  women  took  part  in  this 
struggle  for  liberty.  The  Turks  next  disarmed  Candia,  and 
executed  the  archbishop  and  several  clergymen.  The  peasants 
in  the  mountains  and  suburbs  of  Candia  would  not  give  up  their 
arms  :  they  united  and  succeeded  in  driving  the  Turks  back  into 
the  towns,  though  they  were  thousands  strong. 

In  the  month  of  November,  the  island  of  Cyprus  was  disarmed, 
and  nearly  all  the  inhabitants  of  Larnica  murdered.  The  pea- 
santry for  uniting  in  their  defence,  had,  in  the  month  of  August, 


GREEK  REVOLUTION^  343 

1822,  their  villages,  sixty-two  in  number,  burned.  In  the  mean 
time  the  great  Turkish  fleet  supplied  their  garrisons  in  the  Mo- 
rea  with  arms,  ammunition,  &c. 

The  cause  of  Greece  received  a  new  impulse  by  the  arrival 
of  Demetrius  Ypsilanti,  and  Prince  Alexander  Cantacuzene. 
After  some  difficulty,  Ypsilanti  was  appointed  commander  in 
chief,  July  24,  1821,  of  the  Peloponnesus,  the  Archipelago,  and 
all  the  liberated  pi^ovinces.  There  was  at  this  time  dissensions 
amongst  the  Greek  leaders.  Tripolizza,  the  chief  fortress  of  the 
Turks,  was  besieged  by  Demetrius  Ypsilanti,  and  8,000  Turks 
perished.  It  was  in  this  fortress  the  Greeks  obtained  their  first 
heavy  cannon  ;  and  it  became  the  seat  of  government  till  it  W£i* 
transferr'^d  to  Argos.  In  Thessaly,  Ulysses  with  several  other 
leaders  or  capitani,  defeated  near  Thermopylae,  a  Turkish  army 
which  had  advanced  from  Macedonia.  Prince  Mavrocordato 
received  the  chief  command  of  the  Albanian  forces  ;  when  the 
government  began  to  acquire  some  form,  after  much  difficulty 
and  dissention.  Prince  Mavrocordato  succeeded,  Jan.  13,  (Jan. 
1,)  1822,  in  establishing  an  approximation  to  a  federative  con- 
stitution at  Epidaurus,  until  the  second  national  assembly  in 
Astro,  March  14,  1823.  At  this  convention  more  than  60  depu- 
ties attended. 

The  western  part  of  Greece,  Arcania,  ^tolia,  and  Epirus, 
sent  30  deputies  to  Missilonghi,  who,  under  the  presidency  of 
Alexander  Mavrocordato,  formed  a  government  consisting  of  ten 
members. 

The  eastern  part  of  the  main  land  sent  33  deputies  to  Salona, 
under  the  presidency  of  Theodore  Negris,  forming  the  Areopa- 
gus of  14  members,  November  16  ;  and  the  Morea,  or  Pelopon- 
nesus, with  the  islands  of  Hydra,  Ipsara,  Spezzia,  &c.  sent  to 
Argos  60  deputies,  who  assembled,  December  1st,  under  the 
presidency  of  Prince  Demetrius,  and  established  the  Peloponne- 
sian  Gerousia  of  20  members. 

These  three  governments,  Missilonghi,  Salona,  and  Argos, 
were  to  prepare  a  permanent  constitution.  With  this  view,  67 
deputies  from  all  the  Greek  provinces,  formed  the  first  national 
assembly  in  Epidaurus,  Jan.  10,  1822,  under  the  presidency  of 
Mavrocordato ;  and  on  the  13th,  proclaimed  the  constitution, 
(which  was  provisionary)  and  on  the  27th,  the  congress  of  Epi- 
daurus issued  a  manifesto,  in  which  they  pronounced  the  union 
of  the  Greeks,  under  an  independent  federative  government. 
The  central  government  was  fixed  at  Corinth,  and  some  time 
after  at  Argos. 

We  are  obliged  to  pass  over  many   of  the   movements,  til 
the  arrival  of  the  great  Turkish  fleet,  April  11,  when  15,00C 


344  CHAPTER  XIV. 

barbarian  Asiatic  troops  were  landed  at  Scio :  and  soon  this 
delightful  and  flourishing  island  was  changed  into  a  scene  of 
fire  and  blood.  Down  to  May  25th,  the  Turks,  according  io 
•'heir  own  lists,  sold  into  slavery,  41,000  Sciots,  mostly  v/omea 
and  children. 

'Che  Capudan  Pacha  was  next  prepared  to  desolate  Ipsara. 
"Aine,  and  Samos  ;  but  the  Ipsariots,  with  70  small  vessels  an  J 
ftre-ships,  hovered  round  the  Turkish  fleet,  and  in  the  night. 
time,  rowed  among  their  ships,  while  yet  they  lay  in  the  road 
of  Scio,  and  attached  fire-ships  to  the  Capndan  Pacha's  vessel, 
which  blew  up  with  2,286  men  ;  and  the  Pacha  himself,  mor< 
tally  wounded,  was  carried  ashore,  where  he  died.  Another 
ship  of  the  line  narrowly  escaped.  These  daring  acts  of  the 
Ipsariots  stupified  the  Turks ;  from  which,  when  they  had  reco- 
vered, they  destroyed  the  last  traces  of  cultivation. 

The  savage  fury  of  the  Turks  about  this  time  may  be  judged 
by  the  fact,  that  they  bought  the  wretched  Sciots  at  Constanti- 
nople, merely  for  the  pleasure  of  putting  them  to  death.  The 
Pacha  of  Saloniki,  (Abbolubut,)  boasted  that  he  had  destroyed 
1500  women  and  children  in  one  day.  150  villages  and  5,006 
Christians  experienced  the  fate  of  Scio.  While  all  these  horrora 
were  taking  place,  Mavrocordato,  president  of  the  executive 
council,  was  organizing  the  government,  which  met  with  resist- 
ance from  the  avariciousness  of  Coloctroni  and  others. 

It  had  now  become  important  to  cover  Missilonghi,  the  strong 
hold  of  western  Hellas,  from  the  weakened  state  of  the  army. 
Mavrocordato,  with  300  men,  and  Marco  Botzaris,  with  22  Suli- 
ots,  on  the  5th  of  November,  threw  themselves  into  Missilonghi ; 
while  11,000  Turks  advanced  against  it.  Another  force  of 
25,000  under  Khurshid,  principally  cavalry,  passed  Thermopylse, 
and  as  they  advanced  through  Livadia,  laid  every  thing  waste, 
and  occupied  Corinth.  In  attempting  the  passes  of  Larissa, 
Khurshid  was  repelled  three  times  by  Ulysses.  Khurshid  died 
Nov.  26.  Most  of  this  cavalry  perished  for  its  rashness  in  the 
defiles  of  the  Morea  ;  and  the  remainder  formed  a  junction  with 
5000  men,  of  Jussaf  Pacha's  army,  and  sent  reinforcements  to 
Napoli  di  Romania.  The  Greek  fleet  kept  the  great  Turkish 
fleet  from  affording  relief  to  this  place.  Ulysses,  Coloctroni, 
and  Ypsilanti,  now  prosecuted  their  operations  with  great  zeal, 
and  drove  the  Turkish  forces  out  of  the  Morea.  Niketas  fell 
upon  them  in  the  defiles  of  Tretes,  and  only  2,000  escaped  to 
the  Isthmus  of  Corinth,  where  Ypsilanti  fell  upon  and  destroyed 
them.  More  than  20,000  Turkish  soldiers  perished  in  less  than 
four  weeks.     In  Greece,  there  were  yet  some  thousand  Turks, 


GBEEK  REVOLUTION,  345 

ihfiX  held  the  Isthmus  and  the  Acrocorinthus,  that  were  soon 
after  dispersed  and  destroyed. 

The  Turkish  fleet  left  the  Gulf  of  Lepaoto,  where  it  IwA  failed 
against  Missilonghi.  It  was  unable  to  break  the  line  of  57  Greek 
ships  blockading  Romania,  and  at  last  came  to  anchor  off  Tene- 
dos.  Nov.  10,  a  small  number  of  Ipsariots  carried  fire-ships 
among  the  fleet,  and  fired  the  ships  of  the  admiial  and  the  capi- 
tan  Bey.  The  latter  was  blown  up  with  1800  men.  Three 
frigates  were  wrecked  on  the  coast  of  Asia,  and  a  vessel  of  36 
guns  captured.  Of  35  vessels,  18  only  returned  much  injured 
to  the  Dardanelles.  The  17  Ipsariots  who  had  done  these 
exploits,  arrived  in  safety  at  Ipsara,  and  Kanaris  and  ?vlniauly 
were  rewarded,  by  the  Euphori,  with  naval  crowns.  Again  the 
Greeks  were  masters  of  the  sea  :  it  enabled  them  to  blockade 
the  Turkish  forts,  which  was  acknowledged  by  Great  Britain-. 
The  change  of  ministry  in  England  was  most  fortunate  for 
Greece.  ¥/ith  Canning  as  premier,  and  Maitland  lord  commis- 
sioner of  the  Ionian  Isles,  they  had  less  hostility  directed  against 
them.  Omar  Vrione  was  repulsed  by  Mavrocordato  and  Bot- 
zaris,  before  Missilenghi,  where  he  lost  his  cannon.  Napoli  di 
Romania  was  taken  from  the  Turks  Dec.  12,  (new  style.) 

A  proclamation  to  the  European  powers  was  issued  April  15, 
1822,  which  the  Holy  Alliance  considered  incompatible  with 
their  views  on  legitimacy,  though  disposed  to  be  lenient  towards 
tht!  suflerino;  state  of  Greece.  The  dissensions  amonf?  the  Greek 
leaders,  had  an  unfavorable  influence  on  their  cause  with  the 
European  cabinets.  Coloctroni  meditated  a  division  of  the  Morea 
into  hereditary  principalities. 

The  central  government  called  a  second  national  assembly  at 
Astro,  Jan.  1823,  which  averted  a  civil  war  ;  while  the  judicious 
measures  of  Mavrocordato  tended  to  bring  about  concord.  When 
the  national  assembly  opened,  March  14,  at  Astro,  it  consisted 
of  100  members.  Mavromichalis  was  elected  president ;  Theo- 
dore Negris,  secretary  ;  and  the  perfidious  and  avaricious  Coloc- 
Ironi  submitted  to  the  assembly. 

Condurioti  was  chosen  president  of  the  legislative,  and  Petro 
I\favromichalis,  Bey  of  Maina,  of  the  executive  council.  Both 
legislative  bodies  resolved  to  raise  a.bout  50,000,000  piasters,  to 
levy  and  equip  50,000  men,  and  100  large  men  of  war.  The 
French  military  code  was  adopted.  This  assembly  proclaimed 
the  new  constitution  of  Astro,  April  23d,  1823.  Several  changes 
took  place  in  the  ministry.  Mavrocordato  was  made  president, 
and  Coloctroni,  vice  president. 

This  year  the  Sultan  had  determined  upon  exterminating  tbo 
suffering  Greeks,     Mavrocordato  was  placed  at  the  head  <^ 


346  CHAPTER  XIV. 

the  army,  and  Orlaiidi,  a  Hydriot,  organized  the  navy,  now 
consisting  of  403  sail,  with  cannon.  The  largest  ship  carried  2b 
guns,  and  Miaulis  was  admiral ;  M.  Tumbasis  of  Hydra,  George 
Demitracci,  of  Spezzia,  and  Nicholas  Apostoles,  of  Ipsara, 
vice  admirals.  The  financial  department  met  with  much  dif- 
ficulty. In  March,  the  fleet  had  gained  a  victory  over  the 
Egyptian  flotilla,  destined  for  the  invasion  of  Candia,  though  it 
was  unsuccessful  in  its  attempt  to  prevent  the  landing  of  Turk- 
ish troops. 

M.  Botzaris,  the  Suliot,  now  commanded  the  forces  in  western, 
and  Ulysses  in  eastern  Greece.  The  battles  fought  during  this 
year,  were  not  less  fierce  and  sanguinary  than  those  in  1822. 
M.  Botzaris  surprised  the  Turkish  camp  at  Carpinissi,  at  mid- 
night, with  500  Suliots,  and  penetrated  to  the  tent  of  the  Pacha 
of  Delvino  ;  but  in  the  me^nent  of  victory  received  a  mortal 
wound.  The  victory,  however,  was  completed  by  his  brother 
Constantino.  The  noble  Botzaris  as  he  expired,  exclaimed — 
"  How  sweet  it  is  to  die  for  one's  country."  The  defeat  of  the 
Turks  was  complete,  all  their  baggage  and  artillery  being  taken, 
and  the  Pacha  made  prisoner. 

The  members  of  government  wen,  at  Argos,  in  November, 
1823.  About  this  time  the  campaign  was  finished,  though  a 
partizan  warfare  continued  in  Thessaly  and  Epirus.  Societies 
in  England  aided  the  Greek  cause  by  means  of  loans,  and  by 
supplies  of  arms. 

The  illustrious  poet,  Lord  Byron,  took  a  deep  interest  in  the 
struggle  made  by  the  Greeks  to  throw  off  the  Mohammedan 
yoke.  His  zeal  led  him  to  offer  his  personal  and  pecuniary  aid 
in  their  cause.  He  embarked  August,  1823,  with  five  or  six 
English  friends,  in  an  English  vessel  he  had  purposely  hired, 
and  arrived  in  Greece  at  the  beginning  of  the  third  campaign, 
where  he  was  received  with  marked  distinction.  On  his  arrival 
at  Cephalonia,  where  he  first  established  himself,  he  addressed 
a  letter  to  the  Greek  government,  and  was  induced  by  the  infor- 
mation he  received,  to  advance  12,000/.  for  the  relief  of  Missi- 
longhi,  where  he  afterwards,  with  Col.  Stanhope,  took  an  active 
part  in  organizing  the  artillery.  Byron  himself  established 
printing  offices  and  schools  in  Missilonghi.  He  also  took  500 
Suliots  into  his  pay  ;  but  found  them  very  refractory  and  unwil- 
Mng  to  march  with  him  as  he  designed  upon  Lepanto.  This  preyed 
greatly  upon  his  spirits,  and  he  soon  after  became  dangerously 
ill,  and  died  at  Missilonghi,  April  19,  1824.  His  death  was 
solemnized  by  a  general  mourning  of  twenty-one  days. 

The  Turks  began  the  campaign  of  1824  with  much  more  vigor 
than  it  had  previously  been  carried  on.     Peace  being  concluded 


GREEK  HEVOLUTlON.  347 

witli  Persia,  July  28th,  1823,  and  a  rebellious  Pacha  of  St.  Jean 
d'Acre,  having  yielded  voluntary  submission  to  the  Porte,  it  was 
enabled  to  send  forces  from  Asia,  and  those  that  had  been  sta- 
tioned  in  Moldavia  and  Walachia  now  evacuated. 

The  preceding  campaign  nad  taught  the  Turks,  that  the  de- 
struction  of  the  Greek  navy  was  their  only  means  of  succeeding 
in  subduing  Greece.  The  Capudan  Pacha,  Khosru,  sailed  from 
Mitylene,  July  3d,  with  two  ships  of  the  line,  eight  frigates,  four 
corvettes,  forty  brigs,  and  smaller  vessels  to  the  amount  of  200. 
Among  the  latter  were  a  number  of  neutral  transport  ships, 
belonging  to  the  Russians,  Austrians,  and  others,  hired  by  the 
Capudan  Pacha,  that  sailed  from  the  Dardanelles,  April  28th, 
The  Russians  were  now  on  the  most  friendly  terms  with  the 
Grand  Seignior,  and  aided  the  Turks  with  transport  ships. 
There  were  besides,  Austrian,  Italian,  and  Spanish  vessels,  en- 
gaged against  the  liberties  of  Greece. 

To  oppose  the  armament  of  the  Capudan  Pacha,  the  Ipsa- 
riots  had  2,500  men,  the  entire  male  population,  and  a  corps  of 
Albanians  and  fugitive  Sciots,  about  1,500  in  number,  divided 
into  four  companies.  Their  forces  were  provided  with  batte- 
ries, ammunition,  &c.  The  Turks  landed  silently  in  the  night, 
in  spite  of  the  vigilance  of  the  islanders,  and  advanced  in  three 
columns.  One  advanced  upon  the  town,  and  two  proceeded  to 
the  batteries,  taking  them  in  the  rear,  when  the  most  horrible 
butchery  was  perpetrated.  Five  hundred  Albanians  shut 
themselves  up  in  fort  St.  Nicholas,  which  defended  the  town. 
Wretched  and  afflicted  mothers  first  flung  their  children  from 
high  precipices,  and  then  cast  themselves  into  the  sea.  The 
Albanians  in  the  fort  barricaded  the  gates,  and  killed  half  of  the 
first  assailants. 

The  Turks  concentrated  their  forces  to  reduce  the  fort,  and 
during  the  night  made  a  dreadful  assault  upon  the  Christians, 
who  in  defence  performed  prodigies  of  valor  ;  but  unable  longer 
to  withstand  the  overwhelming  force  of  the  barbarians,  they 
threw  open  the  gates,  suffered  2,000  men  to  rush  into  the  fort, 
till  it  was  entirely  filled,  and  on  a  concerted  signal,  in  an 
instant  all  were  blown  up,  and  buried  amidst  its  ruins.  This 
took  place  on  the.  fourth  of  July.  By  the  disasters  of  Ipsara. 
4,000  Christians  perished,  besides  the  total  destruction  of  all 
property  ;  with  100  vessels  of  different  sizes,  belonging  to  the 
islanders. 

Admiral  Miaulis,  with  the  Greek  fleet,  arrived  before  Ipsara, 
on  the  8th  of  July,  when  the  Turks  immediately  put  to  sea,  and 
numbers  were  captured.  The  Greeks,  on  landing  at  Ipsara, 
found  nothing  but  ruins  and  heaps  of  putrid  corpses  ;  but  the 


348  CHAPTER  XIV. 

dreadful  stench  obliged  them  to  retire  from  this  scene  of  horrof 
The  atrocities  perpetrated  at  Ipsara  by  the  barbarians,  at  ones 
roused  up  all  the  energies  of  Greece  with  dire  revenge. 

The  next  attempt  of  the  Capudan  Pacha,  was  upon  Samos. 
Kanaris,  the  brave  Ipsariot,  with  a  jfire-ship  destroyed  a  40  gun 
frigate  under  sail ;  and  several  transports  shared  a  similar  fate, 
besides  a  Tunisian  brig  of  war,  and  a  large  Tripolitan  corvette. 
On  the  21st,  another  fleet  of  transports  destined  for  Samos, 
were  dispersed  and  partly  destroyed.  The  following  day,  the 
Turkish  fleet  attempted  to  make  the  passage  from  Cape  Tro- 
gilium  to  the  opposite  shore  ;  but  the  appearance  of  two  or 
three  fire-ships  caused  such  terror  in  the  Ottoman  fleet,  as  to 
drive  it  in  disgrace  on  the  Asiatic  coast.  Some  time  after, 
a  junction  took  place  between  the  Egyptian  vessels  and 
those  of  the  Capudan  Pacha,  intending  to  return  to  Samos. 
The  skill  and  boldness  of  the  Greeks  destroyed  a  number  of 
these  with  their  fire-ships,  and  thus  astounded  the  Turks  with 
their  deeds  of  valor,  who  were  glad  to  effect  a  retreat  to  the 
Dardanelles. 

In  November,  the  Egyptians  sustained  severe  damage  frooi 
their  enemy  on  the  northern  coast  of  Candia.  The  forces  of 
the  Greeks  successfully  repelled  their  barbarian  invaders  by 
land,  so  that  the  campaign  of  1824  was  glorious  for  Greece,  and 
its  prospects  more  cheering  than  had  appeared  at  any  time  pre- 
vious. This  gladdening  prospect  continued  up  to  the  beginning 
of  February. 

The  government  of  Greece  now  began  to  assume  harmony  and 
strength,  and  commerce  revived.  Their  army  was  attempted  to 
be  organized  after  the  European  tactics  ;  justice  was  regularly 
idministered,  and  freedom  of  the  press  allowed.  In  Missilonghi 
four  newspapers  were  issued  twice  a  week.  In  the  midst  of  these 
cheering  prospects  for  Greece,  an  Egyptian  fleet  which  hod  been 
delayed  some  months,  sailed  on  the  19th  July,  from  Alexandria, 
consisting  of  nine  frigates,  four  corvettes,  forty  brigs  and  gal- 
Hots,  with  18,000  troops  in  240  transports.  This  armament, 
under  Ibrahim  Pacha,  was  designed  to  subdue  and  desolate  the 
Morea.  The  Egyptian  and  Turkish  fleets  united  in  the  gulf 
of  Bodroun,  Sept.  4th,  where  a  naval  action  ensued.  Kanaris 
blew  up  a  44  gun  Egyptian  frigate  and  a  brig.  The  fleets  tnen 
separated  ;  the  Turkish  fleet  returned  to  Constantinople,  and 
Ibrahim's  fleet  to  the  gulf  of  Bodroun.  Soon  after,  Miaulis 
attacked  it  oflT  Candia,  and  destroyed  a  frigate,  10  small  vessels, 
and  15  transports  ;  when  he  retired  to  Rhodes,  further  weak- 
ened by  the  plague  on  board  his  ships,  and  frustrated  in  his 
plans  of  conquering  the  Morea. 


Massacre  of  the  Greeks.     Vol.  2,  p.  3-3G. 


Battle  of  Navarino.     Vol.  2,  p.  350. 


GREEK  REVOLUTION,  849 

Notwithstanding  the  critical  situation  in  which  Greece  was 
now  placed  by  the  power  of  Kgypt  being  exerted  against  her, 
we  find  the  peninsula  in  the  most  distracted  state  by  the  dissen- 
sions and  broils  of  the  capatani.  In  October,  the  election  for  the 
third  term  commenced.  The  executive  council  at  Napoli  di 
Romania,  consisted  oi^  63  membei's.  The  president,  Mavrocor- 
dato,  resigned,  and  Panuzzo  Notaras  was  chosen  his  successor. 
Coloctroni  was  disappointed  in  his  ambitious  views.  Some  other 
disaffected  chiefs  raised  the  standard  at  Tripolizza,  under  the 
command  of  Panos  Coloctroni.  Troops  were  sent  thither,  by 
the  command  of  Condurioti,  and  after  several  battles,  the  rebels 
were  defeated  and  dispersed,  and  Panos  Coloctroni  killed.  About 
this  time  the  famous  Amazon  Bobolina,  a  follower  of  Coloctroni, 
was  assassinated.  Ulysses  entered  into  a  secret  treaty  with  the 
Turks,  but  was  defeated  and  captured.  In  attempting  to  escape 
from  a  tower  lie  received  a  fall,  and  died  in  consequence  thereof. 
Coloctroni,  the  father,  finding  himself  deserted,  surrendered  him- 
self  up  in  December,  1824.  Several  other  leaders  of  this  rebel- 
lion fled,  and  the  rest  were  seized. 

The  government  now  exerted  itself  to  carry  into  effect  the 
provisions  of  tlie  law,  and  keep  up  discipline  in  the  army.  The 
annual  revenue  the  Porte  received,  from  the  Peloponnesus  alone, 
amounted  to  35,000,000  Turkish  piastres. 

In  the  campaign  of  1825,  Ibrahim  Pacha  landed  his  troops  in 
the  Morea  ,•  and  Missilonghi  was  besieged  by  Redschid  Pacha, 
aided  by  the  fleet  of  the  Capudan  Pacha.  This  calamitous  event 
was  owing  to  the  treachery  and  dissensions  of  the  Greek  chiefs, 
which  permitted  Ibrahim  to  land  between  Coron  and  MordoR, 
February  22,  1825,  an  army  of  4,500  men  ;  and  the  next 
month  his  force  was  augmented  to  12,000,  drilled  with  French 
officers,  after  the  European  tactics.  He  had  besides,  an  excel- 
lent body  of  cavalry.  Ibrahim  besieged  Navarino,  which  soon 
fell  into  his  power.  He  next  pressed  on  to  Tripolizza.  Old 
Coloctroni  was  pardoned  by  the  government,  which  received 
his  assurances  of  fidelity  ;  and  in  May,  1825,  the  command  of 
the  Peloponnesus  was  entrusted  to  him.  A  third  siege  of  Mis- 
silonghi was  commenced  April  22d.  The  Pacha's  fleet  lost 
several  ships  in  an  engagement  with  the  Greek  admiral,  Sac- 
couri,  near  Cape  d'Oro.  Calamata  and  Tripolizza  were  taken 
oy  Ibrahim,  who  went  on  destroying  every  thing  till  he  reached 
.\rgos.  He  then  received  a  severe  check  from  Coloctrom'a 
^lrmy,  which  caused  him  to  fall  back  to  Tripolizza.  When 
iorahim  found  that  the  Greeks  would  not  obey  him  or  submit 
to  his  authority,  he  put  the  men  to  death,  carried  the  women 

voT„  II.  30 


350  CHAPTER  XIV. 

and  children  slaves  to  Egypt,  and  desolated  every  place  witbtfl 
his  reach. 

Missilonghi,  defended  by  Noto  Botzaris,  the  first  among  the 
brave,  was  now  closely  besieged  by  the  Turks,  having  before 
it  35,000  land  forces,  and  4,000  by  sea.  After  a  severe  contest 
of  several  days  they  were  totally  defeated,  August  2d,  1825. 
The  Turks  lost  9,000  men.  During  this  siege  the  brave  and 
active  Miaulis  arrived  with  his  fleet,  and  burned  several  of  the 
enemy's  ships,  and  forced  the  rest  to  retire.  The  siege  of  Mis- 
silonghi was  raised  October  2d,  1825,  four  months  and  a  half 
from  its  commencement. 

In  tho4Jiean  time,  Ibrahim  was  carrying  terror  with  his  arms, 
and  desolating  the  Morea  more  widely  ;  and  the  government 
was  in  great  danger,  having  entirely  lost  the  confidence  of  the 
auxiliary  societies  in  England,  whose  loans  had  been  improperly 
laid  out.  At  last  the  Greeks  sent  deputies  to  England,  resolved 
to  throw  themselves  on  the  protection  of  Great  Britain.  Before 
the  arrival  of  their  deputies,  the  English  government  had  issued 
(Sept.  30,)  a  declaration  of  neutrality.  But  the  alliance  of  the 
powers  of  Europe  prevented  the  interference  of  any  single  power 
in  behalf  of  Greece. 

Sir  Stratford  Canning,  the  English  ambassador  to  Constant!, 
nople,  set  out  in  January,  1826,  and  on  his  way  had  a  long  inter- 
view at  Hydra  with  Mavrocordato,  and  other  Greek  statesmen, 
with  a  view  to  inform  himself  respecting  the  state  of  Greece. 
He  then  proceeded  to  Constantinople,  where  he  arrived  the  last 
of  February.  About  the  same  time,  (March,)  the  affairs  of 
Greece  were  discussed  at  St.  Petersburg,  by  Lord  Strongford, 
the  British  resident  minister  there,  and  who  had  formerly  been 
minister  to  Constantinople,  and  the  Duke  of  Wellington,  envoy 
extraordinary,  who  had  been  sent  thither  by  Canning.  A  hope 
now  began  to  be  cherished,  that  the  independence  of  Greece 
would  be  acknowledged  by  the  Christian  powers  of  Europe. 

The  Pacha  fully  bent  on  reducing  Missilonghi,  had  landed 
more  troops  in  the  Morea,  in  order  to  carry  on  a  winter  cam- 
paign. The  affairs  of  Greece  were,  at  this  time,  in  the  most 
gloomy  state,  having  scarcely  6,000  men  under  arms  to  with- 
stand this  rapacious  foe ;  while  the  money  furnished  by  the 
friends  of  Greece  for  the  equipment  of  the  army,  was  squandered 
by  the  capitani.  The  French,  at  this  time,  were  busy  intriguing 
against  the  English  agents,  to  the  great  injury  of  Greece.  In 
the  midst  of  all  these  disasters,  the  Greeks  succeeded,  Novem- 
ber 24th,  in  throwing  into  Missilonghi,  besieged  for  the  fourth 
time,  a  supply  of  ammunition  and  provisions  for  this  garrison, 
which  had  so  gallantly  repulsed  an  attack,  both  by  sea  and  land. 


GREEK  REVOLUTION.  351 

A  body  of  troops  sent  by  Ibrahim  against  Corinth,  was  destroyed 
6y  Niketas. 

In  December,  the  Greeks  fitted  out  another  naval  equipment 
at  Hydra,  for  the  safety  of  Missilonghi  ;  where  MiauHs,  January 
6th,  put  to  fliglit  the  Capudan  Pacha's  fleet ;  which  some  time 
after  returned,  when  another  attempt  made  to  throw  supphes  into 
the  place,  failed.  On  the  28th,  Missilonghi  was  summoned  to 
surrender,  which  was  bravely  set  at  defiance.  The  fleets  had 
an  engagement  in  the  gulf  oi^  Patra^,  when  Canaris  destroyed 
with  his  fire-ships,  a  frigate  and  several  smaller  vessels.  Ibra- 
him, dissatisfied  with  the  Capudan  Pacha,  caused  his  dismission. 
The  success  of  the  battle  enabled  the  Greeks  to  furnish  Mis- 
silonghi with  some  farther  supplies  ;  but  they  failed  in  attempt- 
ing it  again,  Feb.  12th,  then  blockaded  by  the  Turco- Egyptian 
fleet. 

The  siege  of  Missilonghi  was  carried  on  with  vigor  by  Ibra- 
him Pacha  alone,  who  had  before  it  25,000  men,  and  of  these, 
9,000  were  regular  troops.  He  had  before  it  forty-eight  cannon, 
that  had  been  sold  him  by  the  French  ;  and  he  was  aided  by 
Pierre  Boyer,  a  general,  (a  Bonapartist,)  notorious  for  his  cru- 
elties in  Egypt,  Spain,  and  St.  Domingo.  The  frequent  over- 
tures made  by  Ibrahim  to  the  garrison  to  surrender,  during  its 
bombardment,  were  rejected.  The  assault  continued  from  Feb. 
28,  till  March  2d,  when  it  was  attacked  by  sea  and  land,  with 
a  loss  to  the  besiegers  of  4,000  men.  The  valor  of  the  garri- 
son had  sustained  it  for  a  fifth  time,  though  it  was  nearly  desti- 
tute of  provisions.  In  a  short  time,  the  sufferings  of  the  garrison 
became  extreme,  and  the  surrounding  country  was  devastated 
by  the  barbarian  forces.  Their  sufferings  and  heroic  defence 
gained  for  Greece,  many  ardent  and  active  friends  in  Europe  ; 
and  funds  were  immediately  raised  for  the  heroic  sufferers.  Mr. 
Eynard,  of  Geneva,  made  them  a  liberal  donation,  in  addition 
to  50,000  francs  he  had  before  given  ;  and  it  was  on  his  repre- 
sentation respecting  the  Greeks,  that  the  committee  of  Paris 
voted  60,000',  and  that  of  Amsterdam  30,000.  With  these 
means  supplies  were  sent,  and  the  Greeks  were  successful  in 
throwing  some  of  them  into  the  place,  in  the  face  of  great  dif- 
ficulties. From  April  15th,  Ibrahim  directed  all  his  attention 
to  prevent  supplies  being  sent  from  Zante  in  small  boats.  The 
situation  of  the  besieged  had  now  become  truly  deplorable.  On 
the  17th  and  18th  thev  beo;an  to  die  of  hunger :  the  four  follow- 
ing  days,  their  horrors  hourly  increased.  Mines  were  now  pre- 
pared in  various  parts  of  the  city  to  blov/  it  up,  as  they  were 
determined  not  to  surrender. 

On  the  21st  and  22d,  the  Greek  fleet  under  Miaulis,  made  an 


353  CHAPTER  XIV. 

attempt  to  relieve  the  sufferers  that  proved  unavaifiiig.  H'& 
ships  were  too  snriall  to  contend  with  the  overwhelming  fleet  of 
Ibrahim,  consisting  of  6  ships  of  the  line,  8  or  10  frigates,  and 
90  vessels  of  different  sizes.  Missilonghi,  at  length  reduced  to  a 
heap  of  ruins,  fell  April  22d,  1826.  At  midnight,  about  2,000 
men,  accompanied  by  women  and  children,  rushed  out  on  the 
batteries  of  the  enemy  ;  500  Greeks  fell  on  the  spot,  while  the 
rest,  amounting  to  1,800,  under  Noto  Botzaris  and  Kitzos  Isa- 
vellas,  reached  Salona,  and  afterwards  fought  at  Athens.  Those 
that  remained  in  the  city,  about  1,000  in  number,  mostly  women 
and  children,  with  old  men,  blew  the;«;elves  up  by  the  mines 
that  had  been  purposely  prepared.  At  daybreak,  the  barbari- 
ans entered  the  city.  Thus  fell  Missilonghi,  which  had  so  long 
been  the  strong  hold  of  western  Greece.  The  plain  between 
M  issilonghi  and  the  mountains  was  covered  with  the  dead  bodies 
of  the  Suliots,  who  bad  been  its  most  valiant  defenders.  Many 
escaped  to  the  mountains.  More  than  3,000  pair  of  ears  were 
cut  off  the  dead,  and  sent  as  a  precious  trophy  to  Constantinople  ; 
dnd  above  5,000  women  and  children  were  made  slaves. 

The  annals  of  history  can  furnish  but  few  instances  of  sfccb 
ardor,  firmness,  and  perseverance,  as  was  exhibited  by  the 
Greeks,  during  this  memorable  siege.  Mr.  Meyer,  a  Swiss 
editor,  in  a  letter  he  wrote  a  short  time  before  the  fall  of  this 
place,  says — "  A  Cew  days  more,  and  these  brave  men  will  be 
angelic  spirits,  who  will  accuse  before  God,  the  indifference  of 
Christendom  for  a  cause  which  is  that  of  religion.  We  are 
drawing  near  our  final  hour  ;  history  will  render  us  justice  ; 
posterity  will  weep  over  our  misfortunes.  May  the  relation 
of  the  siege  of  Missilonghi,  which  I  have  written,  survive  me. 
I  have  made  several  copies  of  it."  Lord  Byron,  who  died  at 
Missilonghi  in  April,  had  resided  in  that  place  since  the  begin- 
ning of  January,  of  the  same  year. 

Missilonghi  was  fortified  in  1823,  under  the  superintendance 
of  English  officers  ;  and  partly  at  the  expense  of  a  patriotic  Eng- 
lishman, whose  name,  (Murry,)  deserves  to  be  handed  down  to 
posterity.     It  had  been  made  the  strongest  hold  in  Greece. 

Ibrahim  was  now  in  possession  of  Modon,  Coron,  Navarino, 
and  Patras  ;  and  had  already  removed  three  pachas.  It  only 
remained  for  him  to  gain  possession  of  NapoK  di  Romania,  to 
be  master  of  the  islands  of  the  Archipelago.  This  fact  at  once 
opened  the  eyes  of  the  European  powers,  who  now  looked  with 
distrust  on  Ibrahim. 

Great  exertions  by  societies  in  France,  Germany,  Switzer- 
land, and  England,  were  made  in  behalf  of  the  suffering  Greeks, 
and  many  new  societies  were  formed,  when  a  change  of  mea- 


GREEK  REVOLUTION.  353 

sures  in  the  English  ministry  had  a  most  decided  influence  on 
their  destiny.  By  order  of  Canning,  the  Duke  of  Wellington, 
at  St.  Petersburg,  had  signed  the  protocol  for  the  interference  of 
the  three  great  powers  in  behalf  of  Greece.  It  was  the  wish 
of  Canning  to  adjust  the  difiiculties  between  Greece  and  Turkey, 
witiiout  any  reference  to  Russia  ;  but  death,  at  this  period,  sealed 
his  noble  designs. 

While  these  measures  were  slowly  advancing  among  the 
diplomatic  corps,  Ibrahim  was  deso-lating  the  Morea ;  and  the 
struggling  Greeks,  a  prey  to  every  kind  of  horror,  were  dying 
of  hunger. 

June  17th,  1827,  Athens  capitulated  to  Redschid  Pacha.  Lord 
Cochrane  now  arrived  witli  steam  vessels  from  England,  to  aid 
the  Greeks  ;  and  General  Church  had  the  command  of  the  land 
forces.  New  dissensions  arose  at  Napoli  di  Romania,  and  Pal- 
mades  began  to  cannonade  the  city  to  force  the  payment  of 
arrears.  The  executive  fled  to  ^gina.  In  this  state  of  des- 
peration,  the  Greeks  looked  to  Russia,  and  chose  Count  Capo 
d'Istria  as  their  president,  who  entered  on  his  office  January 
22d,  1828. 

In  the  mean  time,  a  treaty  for  the  settlement  of  Greece  was 
signed  July  6th,  1827,  at  London,  by  the  plenipotentiaries  of 
England,  France,  and  Russia.  This  treaty  was  communicated 
to  the  ambassadors  of  the  three  powers  residing  at  Constantino- 
ple ;  and  on  the  16th  August,  their  joint  note  was  sent  to  the 
Pveis  Effendi.  The  Porte  refused  to  admit  the  interference  of 
the  three  powers,  and  further  attempts  to  induce  the  Porte  to 
listen  to  the  mediation  of  the  allied  powers,  proved  unavailing. 
The  Greek  government  proclaimed  an  armistice  on  the  25th,  in 
conformity  with  the  treaty  of  London. 

September  9th,  the  Turco-Egyptian  fleet  arrived  at  Navarino  ; 
and  on  the  13th,  a  British  squadron  under  Admiral  Codrington, 
reached  this  bay.  By  the  22d,  the  French  squadron,  commanded 
by  Admiral  Rigny,  and  that  of  Russia,  under  Count  Heyden, 
united.  The  admirals  had  an  interview  with  Ibrahim  Pacha  on 
the  25th,  and  informed  him  of  their  determination  to  estabfish 
an  armistice  de  facto,  between  Greece  and  Turkey,  On  the 
following  day,  Ibrahim  attempted  to  sail  from  Navarino,  but  was 
prevented.  When  he  found  he  would  not  be  suffered  to  remove 
his  fleet,  he  commenced  the  work  of  destruction  by  burning 
houses,  destroying  vineyards,  and  the  most  wanton  massacre  of 
women  and  children.  In  consequence  of  these  atrocious  deeds 
the  combined  fleet  entered  the  port  of  Navarino,  to  compel  Ibra. 
him  to  desist  from  these  brutal  outrages. 

October  20th,  the  combined  fleet  passed  the  batteries,  and  bj 
OL.  u.  30* 


S54  CHAPTER  xnr. 

2  P.  M.  were  ready  for  acticHi.  The  Turco-Egyptian  fleet  wasf 
drawn  up  in  the  form  of  a  crescent ;  their  large  ships  presented 
a  broadside,  and  between  these  small  vessels  intervened.  The 
Allied  squadron  was  led  by  the  Asia,  the  ship  of  Admiral  Cod- 
rington,  and  was  followed  by  the  Genoa  and  Albion,  and  an- 
chored alongside  a  ship  of  the  line,  bearing  the  flag  of  Capitana 
Bey,  and  a  large  double-banked  frigate  ;  while  Moharem  Bey, 
the  commander  of  the  Egyptian  fleet,  was  on  the  other  side  of 
the  Asia.  The  Turks  brought  on  the  action,  by  kilting  two 
Englishmen  ;  and  it  soon  became  general,  raging  furiously  for 
four  hours.  It  ended  in  the  destruction  of  the  Moorish  fleet, 
that,  a  short  time  before,  had  consisted  of  3  ships  of  the  line, 
84  guns  each  ;  a  razee  ;   16  frigates ;  27  large  corvettes,  front 

18  to  24  guns ;  and  the  same  number  of  brigs,  with  6  fire-shipsr 
Of  this  armament  there  remained  afloat,  after  the  action,  but  20 
corvettes  and  brigs  ;   and  these  were  abandoned. 

The  intelligence  of  the  destruction  of  the  Moorish  fleet  at 
Navarino,  was  received  with  the  liveliest  joy  by  all  the  friends 
of  Greece,  both  in  Europe  and  America.  This  arose  from  the 
conviction  that  this  blow  had  decided  the  freedom  of  the  Greeks^ 
who,  during  six  years  of  extreme  suffering,  had  been  a  prey  to 
the  most  dreadful  horrors. 

There  was  now  an  involuntary  suspension  of  hostilities. 
Soon  afterwards,  the  Greek  pirates  began  to  infest  the  seas, 
which  caused  the  admirals  of  the  united  squadron,  to  send  a 
warm  remonstrance  to  the  legislative  council  of  the  Greeks. 
After  some  punishments  had  been  inflicted  upon  the  offenders, 
safety  was  restored  in  those  seas ;  but  not  until  the  British  had 
destroyed  the  head-quarters  of  the  pirates  in  Candia,  February 
28th,  1828. 

The  Porte  was  exasperated,  in  the  highest  degree,  with  the 
annihilation  of  its  fleet  at  Navarino;  and  forthwith  seized  and 
detained  all  the  vessels  of  the  Franks  at  Constantinople,  where 
they  were  kept  from  November  2d,  till  November  19  ;  and 
even  stopped  all  communication  with  the  ministers  of  the  Allied 
powers,  till  indemnification  should  be  made  for  the  destruction 
of  the  fleet.  The  Sultan,  in  the  height  of  his  rage,  prepared 
for  war,  and  used  all  the  means  in  his  power  to  inflame  the  pas- 
sions of  the  Moslems.  In  December,  the  ministers  of  the  three 
powers  lefl;  Constantinople,  when  the  Porte  adopted  conciliatory 
measures.     In  the  mean  time,  all  the  Moslems  from  the  age  of 

19  to  50,  had  been  called  to  arms.  On  the  30th,  the  Sultan 
Mahmoud  heard  that  Persian  Armenia  had  fallen  into  the  power 
of  Russia,  where  Paske witch  had  achieved  a  series  of  splendid 
victories. 


GREEX  REVOLUTION.  355 

By  this  time,  Capo  d'Istria,  the  president  of  Greece,  had 
appointed  the  able  Tricoupi  his  secretary  of  state  ;  and  had 
estabhshed  a  high  national  council,  called  Panhellenion.  Feb. 
4th,  at  Napoli  di  Romania,  he  also  established  a  bank,  and  re-or- 
ganized the  military.  France  and  Russia  each  lent  6,000,000 
francs  to  aid  the  new  state. 

In  consequence  of  the  death  of  Canning  and  a  change  of  the 
English  ministry,  the  battle  of  Navarino  was  called  an  untoward 
event.  The  Porte  continued  to  reject  every  proposal  for  settle- 
ment  with  Greece,  and  during  this  time,  Ibrahim  was  carrying 
away  the  Greeks  into  slavery.  A  war  broke  out,  March,  1828, 
between  Russia  and  Turkey,  so  that  the  Porte  had,  with  this 
power  alone,  quite  business  enough  to  attend  to. 

The  French  cabinet,  in  concert  with  England,  now  sent  an 
army  to  the  Morea,  under  the  command  of  General  Maison, 
which  arrived  August  29th,  in  the  bay  of  Coron,  near  Petalidi ; 
and  Admiral  Codrington  concluded  a  treaty  with  the  viceroy  of 
Egypt,  Aug.  6th,  for  the  evacuation  of  the  Morea  by  Ibrahim 
Pacha,  and  for  the  liberation  of  the  Greek  prisoners,  while  those 
who  had  been  carried  away,  were  to  be  freed  or  ransomed. 

October  4th,  Ibrahim  sailed  from  Navarino  with  21,000  men, 
for  Alexandria,  with  the  wreck  of  his  fleet,  leaving  2,500  in  the 
Messinian  fortresses. 

The  French  took  undisputed  possession  of  Navarino,  and 
attacked  and  took  the  fortresses  in  Messina,  so  that  Navarino, 
Modon,  and  Coron,  were  soon  in  their  possession.  Patras,  with 
3,000  men,  capitulated  October  5th,  and  the  flags  of  the  three 
Allied  powers,  with  the  national  flag  of  Greece,  waved  undis- 
puted over  these  cities.  Admiral  Rigny  conveyed  the  Turks  to 
Smyrna. 

To  defend  the  Morea  from  any  new  attacks  of  the  Turks, 
a  manifesto  was  issued  by  the  ministers  of  the  three  powers, 
Nov.  16,  1828,  declaring — "  That  they  should  place  the  Morea 
and  the  Cyclades  under  their  protection,  till  the  time  when  a 
definitive  arrangement  should  decide  the  fate  of  the  provinces, 
which  the  Allies  had  taken  possession  of;  and  that  they  should 
consider  the  entrance  of  any  military  force  into  this  country,  as 
an  attack  upon  themselves."  A  French  agent  carried  this  note 
to  Constantinophj,  to  which  an  immediate  answer  from  the  Porte 
was  required.  But  during  this  time,  the  Greeks  continued  active 
hostilities.  Demetrius  Ypsilanti,  having  under  him  Coloctroni 
and  several  leaders,  and  5,000  men,  marched  into  Livadia,  and 
defeated  the  Turks,  Nov.  2d,  at  Lomotico,  and  Dec.  3d,  took 
Salona  ;  then  in  succession,  Lepanto,  Livadia,  and  Vonizza. 
The  Greeks  commenced  fitting  out  a  great  number  of  privateers 


35tJ  CHAPTER  XIV. 

In  consequence  of  these  measures,  the  Sultan  banished  25,000 
persons,  Greeks  and  Armenians,  not  born  there,  from  the  city 
of  Constantinople  ;  and  the  Sultan  still  declined  to  recall  his 
barbarous  edict  of  extermination. 

Through  the  energetic  measures  of  Capo  d'Istria,  Greece  began 
to  recover  herself  after  a  long  period  of  distraction.  He  divided 
the  states  of  Greece  into  13  departments,  seven  of  these  formed 
the  Peloponnesus,  with  280,000  inhabitants,  and  8,543  square 
miles  ;  the  eighth,  the  Northern  Sporades,  6,200  inhabitants, 
106  square  miles ;  the  ninth,  the  Eastern  Sporades,  58,800 
inhabitants,  318  square  miles  ;  the  tenth,  the  Western  Sporades, 
with  40,000  inhabitants,  169  square  miles  ;  the  eleventh,  twelfth, 
and  thirteenth,  the  Cyclades,  (north,  central,  and  south,)  91,500 
inhabitants,  1176  square  miles.  Total  mhabitants,  476,500; 
square  miles,  10,312. 

The  Brititsh  plenipotentiary  presented  his  credentials  to  the 
president  of  Greece,  Nov.  19,  1828  ;  and  Colonel  Fabier,  after 
his  return  from  France,  took  upon  him  the  organization  of  the 
Greek  army.  On  the  delivery,  at  Constantinople,  of  the  protocol 
of  the  three  powers,  in  January,  1829,  a  verbal  answer  was 
given  by  the  Reis  Effendi,  that  the  Porte  wished  for  peace.  In 
July,  Sir  Robert  Gordon,  the  British  ambassador,  and  Count 
Guillimont,  from  France,  arrived  at  Constantinople.  The  suc- 
cesses of  Dicbitsch,  who  had  crossed  the  Balkan  mountains,  and 
was  on  his  way  towards  Constantinople,  compelled  the  Turkish 
plenipotentiaries  to  sign  a  treaty,  which  recognized  formally,  in 
the  sixth  article,  the  treaty  of  July  6,  1827.  Peace  between 
Russia  and  the  Porte  was  signed  at  Adrianople,  Sept.  14,  1829, 
and  was  ratified  by  the  latter,  six  days  afterwards. 

Having  brought  down  the  affairs  of  Greece  to  the  cessation 
of  hostilities,  it  only  remains  to  add  a  {ew  particulars  respecting 
the  death  of  Capo  d'Istria.  This  individual  became  exceedmgly 
unpopular  with  the  Greeks,  from  his  supposed  attachment  to 
Russian  interests,  and  the  jealousy  and  impatience  of  restraint 
of  the  Greek  chiefs.  In  the  spring  of  1831,  the  islands  and 
province  of  Maina  were  in  open  resistance  to  the  government. 
Miaulis,  Mavrocordato,  and  Condurioti,  demanded  a  convoca- 
tion of  the  national  assembly,  the  liberty  of  the  press,  and  that 
certain  state  prisoners  should  be  liberated.  The  insurgents  took 
possession  of  Poros,  and  the  Greek  fleet  lying  in  the  harbor.  In 
August,  the  troops  of  the  president  attacked  the  town,  while  the 
Russian  fleet  was  standing  in  to  attack  the  Greek  fleet  in  the 
harbor.  Admiral  Miaulis  then  blew  up  his  ships,  rather  than 
suffer  them  to  fall  into  the  hands  of  the  Russians.  The  city  of 
Poros,  deserted  by  its  inhabitants,  was  reduced  to  ashes.     In  the 


GREEK  REVOLUTION.  357 

n^an  time,  the  Mainots  were  actively  engaged  by  land  against 
the  government. 

The  Russian  fleet  now  appeared  in  the  gulf  of  Coron ;  when 
Miaulis,  who  had  been  co-operating  with  the  Mainots  with  a 
small  squadron,  destroyed  it  for  the  same  reasons  he  had  done 
with  the  ships  at  Poros. 

October  9th,  1831,  as  the  president  was  going  to  attend  ser- 
vice at  the  church,  he  was  assassinated  by  two  men,  who  had 
repaired  purposely  to  Napoli  di  Romania.  One  fired  a  pistol  at 
the  head  of  Capo  d'Istria,  and  the  other  stabbed  him  with  a 
Turkish  dagger,  when  he  fell  dead  on  the  spot.  These  persons 
were  George  the  son,  and  Constantino  the  brother  of  Mavromi- 
chalis,  who  had  been  imprisoned  since  January.  Constantino 
was  immediately  killed  by  the  guards  of  the  president,  and 
George  was  detained  in  custody. 

In  1832,  the  three  powers  obtained  from  the  Grand  Seignior 
a  much  more  advantageous  northern  boundary  line  for  Greece, 
than  had  been  granted  in  1830.  The  line  is  to  run  from  the 
gulf  of  Volo,  in  the  ^Egian  Sea,  along  a  range  of  mountains, 
to  the  gulf  of  Arta,  in  the  Adriatic.  By  this  arrangement, 
Acarnania  and  vEtolia,  chiefly  inhabited  by  Greeks,  are  included 
in  the  kingdom  of  Greece — an  acquisition  of  great  importance, 
as  it  adds  nearly  100,000,  inhabitants,  and  almost  3,000  square 
miles  to  the  new  state.  Besides  the  frontier  line  is  more  strongly 
marked,  and  will  be  easier  of  defence. 

Tliis  accession  to  Greece  was  obtained  from  the  Grand 
Seignior  for  50,000,000  of  Turkish  piasters ;  which  are  to  be 
deducted  from  the  sum  he  had  undertaken  to  pay  to  Russia. 

The  present  population  of  Greece  is  estimated  at  from  635,000 
to  900,000  souls.  Its  territory,  including  Acarnania,  ^tolia, 
and  the  islands,  is  about  18,000  square  miles,  equal  to  about  two- 
fifths  of  the  state  of  New  York,  and  about  equal  to  it  in  popula- 
tion. The  Morea,  or  Peloponnesus,  comprises  7,227  square 
miles,  and  nearly  equivalent  in  extent  to  the  state  of  Massachu- 
setts. The  same  treaty  which  fixed  the  boundary  line,  raised 
Otho,  a  Bavarian  youth  of  seventeen  years  of  age,  to  the  throne 
of  Greece  ;  who  carried  with  him  3,500  Bavarian  soldiers,  when, 
as  stipulated,  the  French  troops  were  to  be  withdrawn. 

In  the  maintenance  and  aid  of  the  new  government,  England, 
France,  and  Russia,  have  provided,  and  become  responsi"ble  for, 
a  loan  of  $3,750,000  ;  and  have  further  agreed  to  furnish,  at 
two  instalments,  an  equal  amount,  should  it  be  required  for  the 
good  of  the  country.  This  loan  is  to  be  refanded  in  due  time, 
and  the  payment  of  the  interest  is  provided  for. 

King  Otho,  the  new  monarch  of  Greece,  arrived  at  Napoli 


358  CHAPTER  XIV. 

di  Romania,  Feb.  6,  1 B33.  There  were,  at  this  time,  in  the 
port  of  Napoli  di  Ronjania,  several  ships  of  war  belonging  to 
England,  France,  and  Russia.  On  the  following  day.  King 
Otho  issued  a  proclamation,  declaring  his  good  intentions  and 
well  wishes  for  his  adopted  country,  and  engaging  to  protect  the 
religion  of  the  Greeks. 


War  between  Russia  and  Turkey. 

Hostilities  between  Russia  and  Turkey  commenced  at  a  most 
fortunate  period  for  the  safety  of  Greece.  The  Porte  breathing 
vengeance,  and  intent  on  exterminating  the  entire  Greek  popu- 
lation, would  listen  to  no  terms  of  accommodation  offered  by  the 
Allied  powers. 

The  battle  of  Navarino  had,  for  the  present,  paralyzed  the 
operations  of  Ibrahim  Pacha ;  and  after  such  a  signal  chastise- 
ment of  the  infidels  by  the  Allied  powers,  they  could  not  honor- 
ably withdraw  tlieir  future  protection  to  the  Greeks,  who  had  so 
long  been  left  to  contend  alone  against  their  cruel  oppressors 
and  murderers. 

The  Porte  was  led  to  consider  that  Russia  secretly  favored 
the  Greek  cause,  and  therefore  took  possession  of  Moldavia  and 
Walachia,  and  put  restrictions  upon  its  maritime  commerce. 
This  was  an  open  violation  of  the  peace  of  Bucharest,  on  which, 
after  an  exchange  of  notes,  the  Russian  minister  left  Constan- 
tinople ;  but  through  the  exertions  of  the  ministers  of  Austria 
and  England,  and  the  desire  of  the  Emperor  Alexander  to  pre- 
serve peace,  the  commencement  of  hostilities  was  avoided.  Still 
the  Porte  refused  to  give  any  satisfaction  to  the  Russian  court 
Things  remained  in  this  state  till  the  Emperor  Nicholas  issued 
hi^  ultimatum,  May  14,  1826,  when  the  Porte  granted  all  the 
demands  of  the  court  of  Russia,  and  promised  that  Moldavia 
and  Walachia  (where  the  Porte  had  derived,  in  three  years,  a 
revenue  of  37,000,000  of  piasters,  to  aid  the  prosecution  of  the 
war  against  Greece,)  should  be  restored.  October  6,  1826,  at 
Ackerman,  the  Russian  ultimatum  was  accepted.  The  Porte 
also  surrendered  all  the  fortresses  in  Asia  to  Russia.  This 
treaty  was  executed  in   1827. 

The  Sultan  Mahmoud  had  now  nis  hands  full  of  other  business. 
Having  determined  to  reform  his  army,  he  began  by  exterminat- 
ing the  corps  of  Janisaries,  which  he  effected  after  a  bloody 
battle,  in  June,  1826  ;   when  he   formed  his  army  on  the  Euro- 


WAR  BETWEEN  RUSSIA  AND  T    RKEY.  Sfi'^ 

pean  system.  The  Sultan  himself  wore  the  European  dress,  ard 
prohibited,  throughout  his  empire,  the  calling  of  Christians, 
•'  dogs."  This  new  system  of  reform  led  to  a  violent  insurrec- 
tion, and  the  loss  of  6,000  houses  in  Constantinople. 

In  June,  1827,  the  Porte  refused  the  intervention  of  Russia, 
France,  and  England,  for  the  settlement  of  Greece  ;  and  seemed 
to  bid  defiance  to  the  powers  of  Europe,  by  attempting  to  rally 
together  all  his  subjects  for  war. 

Russia  declared  war  against  Turkey,  April  26,  1828.  In  that 
document  the  emperor  declared,  that  he  would  not  lay  down  his 
arms  till  he  had  obtained  the  following  results,  namely  :  the 
payment  of  all  the  expenses  of  the  war  ;  the  acknowledgment 
of  past  treaties  ;  inviolable  liberty  of  the  commerce  of  the  Black 
Sea  ;  the  free  navigation  of  the  Bosphorus  ;  and  lastly,  the 
fulfilment  of  the  convention  of  July  6th,  for  the  pacification  of 
Greece. 

The  campaign  opened  May  7th,  1828,  by  the  Russian  army 
of  115,000  men  passing  the  Pruth,  under  Count  Wittgenstein, 
commander  in  chief.  On  the  19th,  the  Emperor's  staff  arrived 
before  Brailow,  of  which  Diebitsch  was  chief.  June  15th,  in 
attempting  to  carry  this  place  by  storm,  the  Russians  lost  640 
men  killed,  two  major  generals,  and  1340  men  wounded.  June 
20,  Brailow  surrendered  to  the  Russians,  on  condition  of  the 
garrison  being  .  permitted  to  retire  to  Silistria.  Two  hundred 
and  seventy-three  cannon,  besides  a  great  quantity  of  balls  and 
ammunition,  were  taken.  Up  to  July  2d,  the  Russians  had  taken 
seven  fortresses — Brailow,  Matschin,  Toultscha,  Hirsova,  Kus- 
tendji,  Keuzgon,  and  Managalia.  Toultscha  was  defended  by 
91  cannon,  and  2,000  men. 

August  7th,  the  Russian  flotilla  before  Varna,  attacked  that 
of  the  Turks,  and  captured  14  vessels.  On  the  20th  August, 
the  Grand  Vizier  left  Constantinople  for  the  army.  September 
20th,  the  Seraskier  of  Widdin  was  defeated  by  General  Geismar, 
with  great  loss,  and  compelled  to  retreat.  About  the  same  time, 
a  Russian  manifesto  issued  at  St.  Petersburg,  ordered  a  new  levy 
of  four  men  out  of  every  500  of  the  population.  Varna  was 
carried  by  assault  after  a  siege  of  two  months,  October  11th. 
Its  garrison  originally  amounting  to  22,000  men,  was  reduced 
to  6,000.  This  was  the  most  important  fortress  of  the  Turks ; 
and  gave  the  Russians  the  command  of  the  western  coast  of  the 
Black  Sea.  On  the  15th  October,  the  blockade  of  the  Darda- 
nelles was  announced  officially  by  Admiral  Heyden.  In  July, 
the  Turks  retired  into  the  strongly  fortified  mountain  position  of 
Shumla,  where  they  had  more  than  40,000  men,  under  the  com- 
mand  of  Hussein  Pacha. 


S60  CHAPTER  XIV. 

The  principal  Russian  force,  45,000  men,  under  Field  Marshal 
Wittgenstein,  with  the  Emperor,  approached  Shumla,  while  Uie 
operations  were  going  on  before  Varna.  The  Grand  Vizier  cau- 
tiously avoided  giving  battle  to  the  Russians  before  Shumla. 
After  the  fall  of  Varna,  the  Russian  army  fell  back  from  Shumla, 
October  15.  Silistria  was  besieged  in  September,  and  raised 
November  10th.  The  heavy  artillery  of  the  Russians  was 
abandoned.  While  these  operations  were  going  forward,  Gene- 
ral Paskewitch,  after  signal  success  in  Persia,  was  advancing 
through  Asiatic  Turkey  with  a  victorious  army,  and  had  gained 
a  series  of  brilliant  victories.  By  the  21st  of  September,  the 
whole  pachalic  of  Bajasid,  as  far  as  the  banks  of  the  Euphrates, 
was  conquered.  The  approach  of  winter  put  an  end  to  this 
campaign,  in  which  the  Russians  lost  many  men  by  disease  and 
want  of  supplies.  The  loss  of  horses  was  great.  The  results 
of  the  campaigns  in  Europe  and  Asia,  were,  two  Turkish  prin- 
cipalities taken,  three  pachalics,  fourteen  fortresses,  and  three 
castles.  Notwithstanding  these  losses  of  the  Turks,  the  Porte 
refused  the  terms  of  accommodation  offered,  before  and  during 
this  campaign,  by  the  Emperor  Nicholas,  through  the  British 
ambassador,  Lord  Heytesbury,  viz.  indemnification  for  the  ex- 
pense of  the  war,  and  security  against  future  injuries  and  viola- 
tions  of  treaties. 

The  Sultan  prepared  for  a  new  campaign.  General  Diebitsch 
was  appointed  commander  in  chief  of  the  Russian  forces,  Feb. 
21,  1829.  The  siege  of  Silistria  was  renewed  on  the  opening 
of  the  campaign,  under  the  direction  of  Diebitsch,  May  17th. 
The  Turkish  army,  commanded  by  the  Grand  Vizier,  attacked 
the  Russians  posted  near  the  village  of  Eski  Arnaoutlar,  at 
three  in  the  morning.  The  battle  lasted  till  8  in  the  evening, 
when  the  Turks  retired  with  the  loss  of  2,000  killed.  On  the 
17th  of  June,  a  great  battle  was  fought  at  Koulevtcha,  near 
Shumla — the  Turks  commanded  by  the  Grand  Vizier,  and 
the  Russians  by  Diebitsch.  The  battle  was  fought  with  great 
obstinacy ;  when  European  tactics  prevailed  over  Turkish 
courage.  The  Turks  lost  5,900  killed,  a  great  number  of  pri- 
soners, 43  pieces  of  cannon,  6  standards,  all  their  ammunition 
wagons,  baggage,  &c. 

June  30th,  Silistria  surrendered  to  the  Russians.  The  garri- 
son consisted  of  8,000  men,  and  the  armed  inhabitants  that  wer.e 
made  prisoners  of  war  ;  220  pieces  of  cannon,  80  stand  of  colors, 
and  2  three-tailed  pachas,  were  also  taken,  besides  the  whole  of 
the  Turkish  flotilla. 

Immediately  after  the  surrender  of  the  fortress  of  Silistria, 
Diebitsch  commenced  preparations  to  pass  the  river  Kamtchick 


WAR  BETWEEN  RUSSIA  AND  TURKEY.  361 

and  the  Balkan  mountains.  On  the  17th  of  July,  the  camp 
before  Shumla  was  left,  and  by  the  22d,  Diebitsch  had  attained 
the  summit  of  the  Balkan.  In  descending  these  mountains, 
the  Russians  encountered  a  Turkish  force  of  about  7,000  men, 
under  the  Seraskier  Abduhl  Rahman,  and  defeated  him,  takmg 
4U0  prisoners,  12  cannon,  and  7  standards.  On  the  23d,  Mesem- 
bria  was  captured,  with  20  standards,  15  cannon,  and  2,000  pri- 
soners ;  and  on  the  same  day  Achioli  was  captured,  containing 
l4  pieces  of  cannon,  ammunition,  &c. 

When  the  Russian  army  reached  the  shores  of  the  Black  Sea, 
it  was  able  to  co-operate  with  the  fleet  under  Admiral  Greig. 
On  the  24th  of  June,  Bourgas  was  taken,  with  ten  pieces  of 
cannon,  and  abundance  of  military  stores.  On  the  25th,  Aidos 
was  captured,  with  the  whole  Turkish  camp,  600  tents,  500 
barrels  of  gunpowder,  4  standards,  &c. 

August  19th,  the  Russians  approached  Adrianople,  and  the 
next  day  took  unresisted  possession  of  the  place,  where  nego- 
ciations  commenced.  Sept.  14,  a  treaty  of  peace  was  signed. 
Russia  agreed  to  the  restoration  of  Moldavia  and  Walachia,  and 
all  the  towns  occupied  by  them  in  Bulgaria  and  Rumelia.  Mol- 
davia was  to  have  an  independent  administration  and  free  trade  ; 
and  the  Russians  freedom  of  commerce  throughout  the  Ottoman 
empire,  agreeably  to  former  treaties ;  and  free  commerce  and 
navigation  of  the  Black  Sea,  to  all  nations  at  peace  with  Tur- 
key. The  Porte  stipulated  to  pay  as  an  indemnification  to 
Russia,  1,500,000  ducats  of  Holland,  for  the  losses  of  Russian 
subjects :  and  a  further  sum,  as  should  be  agreed  upon,  as  an 
indemnity  for  the  expenses  incurred  in  the  war.  And  the  Porte 
acceded  to  the  terms  of  Russia,  Great  Britain,  and  France,  for 
the  settlement  of  the  affairs  in  Greece. 

The  indemnity  for  the  expenses  of  the  war,  was  arranged  in 
u  subsequent  act,  to  be  paid  in  instalments.  On  the  first  pay- 
ment, the  Russian  troops  were  to  retire  from  Adrianople  ;  on  the 
second,  to  repass  the  Balkan  ;  and  on  the  third,  to  repass  the 
Danube  ;  and  on  the  fourth  payment  to  evacuate  the  Turkish 
territory.  So  far,  the  Emperor  Nicholas  fulfilled  his  declara- 
tion and  pledges  to  the  Allies,  on  the  commencement  of  the  war 
— after  having  gained  the  objects  for  which  it  was  undertaken. 
In  this  campaign,  it  has  been  stated,  that  the  Russians  lost 
200,000  men  and  20,000  horses. 

It  was  stated  in  the  papers  at  the  time,  that  the  Russian  forces, 
at  the  commencement  of  the  present  campaign,  amounted  to 
541,731  regular  troops,  and  146,601  irregulars,  making  a  total 
of  688,332. 

VOL.  II.  31 


362  CHAPTER  XIV, 


England,  from  A,  D.  1816,  to  the  passing  of  the  Reform  Bill, 

A.  D,  1832. 

The  course  of  policy  pursued  by  the  British  cabinet,  mainly 
brought  about  the  restoration  of  Louis  XVIII.  to  the  throne  of 
France.  Its  accompHshment  loaded  England  with  an  enor- 
mous debt,  as  much  in  opposition  to  the  wishes  of  the  majority 
of  Englishmen,  as  the  restoration  of  the  Bourbons  was  con- 
trary to  the  desire  of  the  French  nation.  Smce  that  event, 
the  French  have  expelled  the  Bourbons  ;  and  the  people  of 
England  have  succeeded,  after  an  arduous  struggle,  in  the 
overthrow  of  toryism,  or  more  properly  speaking,  of  military 
despotism. 

The  glaring  corruptions  in  the  representation,  and  the  abuses 
which  existed  in  the  "  rotten-borough  system,"  had  long  ago 
been  clearly  shown,  by  writers  of  great  political  knowledge  ; 
and  many  of  England's  best  and  purest  patriots  had  labored  to 
correct  the  abuses  which  existed  in  their  representation.  The 
liberal  journalists  exerted  themselves  incessantly  to  effect  this 
object,  and  it  was  repeatedly  urged  in  parliament  with  great  force 
of  eloquence. 

The  accession  of  William  IV.  who  soon  became  the  most 
popular  monarch  that  had  reigned  in  England,  proved  favorable 
to  the  cause  of  hberty.  After  the  overthrow  of  the  Duke  of 
Wellington  and  his  cabinet,  William  called  a  whig  ministry,  with 
Earl  Grey  at  its  head  ;  and  this  eminent  statesman,  with  his 
colleague,  Brougham,  carried  through  the  long  and  ardently 
desired  reform,  which,  eradicating  the  "  rotten  boroughs,"  pro- 
vided for  the  free  and  equal  representation  of  the  people  of  Eng 
land  in  parliament. 

The  measures  of  the  English  government  having  a  n5os"v 
important  bearing  on  the  general  policy  of  Europe,  it  will  be 
requisite  here  to  take  a  hasty  glance  at  the  public  measures  of 
British  statesmen,  more  especially  of  those  who  have  so  essen- 
tially  aided  the  new  and  more -enlarged  line  of  policy,  in  accord- 
ance  with  the  spirit  of  the  age,  and  opposed  to  the  "  slavish  and 
despotic  monarchies  of  Europe." 

In  the  1820,  George  III.  died,  January  29th,  at  the  age  of 
82,  after  a  reign  of  three-score  years,  the  longest  in  the  Biitish 
annals  ;  when  (^eorge  IV.  who  had  been  regent  since  February 
.3,  1811,  succeeded  to  the  throne  of  Great  Britain.  Earl  L-ver- 
pool  was  nominated  by  the  prince  regent,  first  lord  of  the 
treasury,  Jan.  9,  1812,  and  continued  in  office  till  1827,     His 


ENGLAND.  363 

prudence  and  moderation  at  home,  were  strikingly  contrasted 
with  the  course  pursued  by  Castlereagh,  minister  of  the  foreign 
department.  This  latter  minister  destroyed  himself  by  sui- 
cide, August  12,  1822.  On  his  interment  in  V/estminster 
Abbey,  popular  indignation  against  his  memory  was  strongly 
exhibited.  And  that  this  was  not  without  reason,  will  appear 
by  a  reference  to  his  many  unfeeling  and  tyrannical  measures, 
and  his  violations  of  the  constitution.  We  are  here  constrained 
to  offer  a  passing  remark,  on  the  public  character  of  this  minis- 
ter, whose  true  reputation  is  not  generally  known  m  this  coun- 
try. Castlereagh  was  hated  for  his  tyranny  ;  he  was  the  dupe 
of  courts,  and  the  betrayer  of  the  people.  The  part  he  took 
in  the  congress  of  Vienna,  in  parcelling  out  and  trafficking 
away  the  rights  of  weaker  states,  to  build  up  a  military  despot- 
ism throughout  Europe,  loaded  him  with  the  execrations  of  all 
those  people  whom  he  had  so  basely  sold.  His  death  was  con- 
sidered in  England  as  a  happy  event  for  the  cause  of  liberty, 
which  his  measures  had  for  so  many  years  crushed.  It  will  be 
seen,  that  the  foreign  policy  of  England  underwent  a  complete 
change  after  his  death. 

In  1816,  the  income  tax  was  taken  off  from  personal  estate, 
capital,  and  colonial  possession.  This  was  but  shifting  the  bur- 
den of  taxation  from  landholders  to  the  working  classes,  those 
great  consumers  of  the  necessaries  of  life  ;  who  were  now 
reduced  to  the  greatest  state  of  suffering.  England  for  a  time, 
surmounted  all  these  difficulties,  and  even  greatly  increased  her 
foreign  trade.  This  t  ept  the  manufacturing  districts  quiet,  as 
long  as  they  were  well  employed. 

In  the  month  of  Aagust,  1816,  a  British  squadron  of  five  sail 
of  the  line  and  five  frigates,  under  the  command  of  Lord  Ex- 
mouth,  bombarded  Algiers,  and  destroyed  the  Algerine  shipping, 
batteries,  and  magazines  :  when  the  Dey  agreed  to  the  total 
abolition  of  Christian  slavery,  and  the  release  of  all  Christian 
captives  in  his  dominions.  A  few  months  after  this  defeat  the 
Dey  was  strangled,  when  piracy  again  flourished,  till  the  French 
afterwards  conquered  this  piratical  city. 

The  distresses  in  England  led  the  populace  to  offer  public 
insult,  and  assail  the  prince  regent,  in  1817,  on  his  return  tVom 
parliament  to  Carlton  House.  February  3,  a  royal  message 
and  accompanying  documents  were  commimicated  to  parlia- 
ment, giving  information  of  the  existence  of  societies,  combi- 
nations, &c.  in  the  metropolis,  and  throughout  the  kingdom, 
dangerous  to  the  constitution  ;  and  that  insurrections  had  been 
planned.  In  consequence  of  this  information,  which  was  greatly 
exaggerated,  the  ministry  took  a  high-handed  course.     Lord 


364  CHAPTER  XIV. 

Sidmouth  introduced  a  bill  into  the  house  of  lords,  for  the  sus- 
pension of  the  habeas  corpus  act,  which  passed  into  a  law  ;  and 
Castlereagh  was  successful  in  carrying  one  to  suppress  debating 
societies,  and  unlawful  organizations  ;  and  a  third  bill  was 
passed,  for  punishing,  with  severity,  all  attempts  to  corrupt  the 
army  and  navy. 

Sir  F.  Burdett,  May  20th,  again  brought  forward  the  ques- 
tion of  parliamentary  reform,  in  which  he  was  aided  by  Sir 
Samuel  Romilly.  It  was,  however,  lost,  the  votes  being  265 
against  77. 

1818.  One  of  the  first  measures,  after  the  opening  of  par- 
liament, was  the  restoration  of  the  liberties  of  the  people,  by 
the  repeal  of  the  habeas  corpus  suspension  act,  accompanied 
by  a  bill  of  indemnity  to  screen  the  ministers  for  such  a  high- 
handed act.  Sir  Samuel  Romilly  declared,  on  the  second 
reading  of  the  indemnity  bill,  "  that  it  annihilated  the  rights 
of  individuals,  and  took  all  legal  remedies  from  those  who  had 
suffered  by  an  irresponsible  and  unconstitutional  exercise  of 
authority." 

In  August,  1819,  there  was  a  meeting  at  Manchester,  to  dis- 
cuss the  question  of  parliamentary  reform.  It  should  here  be 
stated  that  spies,  in  the  employment  of  government,  had  gone 
about  the  country,  inflaming  the  minds  of  the  people  ;  and  these 
same  wretches,  when  detected,  were  shielded  behind  the  power 
of  the  ministry.  This  meeting  at  Manchester  was  of  a  peace- 
able character,  and  was  estimated  at  50,000  souls,  including 
the  wives  and  children  of  the  petitioners.  There  was  no  ap- 
pearance or  intention  of  riot,  nor  were  there  any  arms  among 
them.  Mr.  Hunt  was  the  chairman,  and  during  his  speech, 
the  assembly  was  charged  by  the  military,  and  many  lives  were 
sacrificed  in  a  most  inhuman  manner.  This  nefarious  trans- 
action roused  the  indignation  of  the  British  populace.  The 
distresses  about  this  time,  in  the  manufacturing  districts,  were 
heavily  felt.  The  national  debt,  by  a  continuance  of  twenty- 
three  years'  war,  had  increased  to  about  900,000,000  pounds. 
Strong  measures  were  taken  to  prevent  public  discussions. 
Ireland,  at  this  time,  presented  nothing  but  a  scene  of  conflict 
and  misery. 

Earl  Grey,  in  the  house  of  lords,  moved  for  an  inquiry  into 
the  conduct  of  the  Manchester  magistrates,  but  was  defeated  ; 
and  a  similar  attempt  was  made  in  the  house  of  commons,  and 
this  also  was  voted  down.  The  subject  was  renewed  before 
the  recess  of  parliament ;  but  these  false  guardians  of  pubhc 
liberty  refused  to  inquire  into  this  most  flagrant  outrage  on  the 
rights  of  tlie  people  :    instead    of  which,  the  ministei-s  intro- 


ENGLAND.  365 

duced  several  bills  that  became  laws,  to  be  continued  five 
years.  These  have  gone  by  the  designation  of  the  six  acts. 
They  were  :  1st,  a  bill  to  take  away  the  right  of  traversing, 
in  cases  of  misdemeanors.  2d,  for  punishing  any  person  found 
guilty,  on  a  second  conviction  of  libel,  by  fine,  imprisonment, 
or  banishment  for  life.  3d,  for  preventing  seditious  meetings. 
4th.  to  prevent  private  military  trainings.  5th,  the  application 
of  the  severe  stamp  system  to  pamphlets  under  two  sheets,  and 
a  more  rigorous  punishment  of  libels  and  seditious  writings. 
6th,  a  bill  giving  magistrates  the  power  of  entering  houses  by 
night,  or  by  day,  for  the  purpose  of  seizing  arms  believed  to  be 
collected  for  unlawful  purposes. 

1820.  The  death  of  George  III.  this  year,  produced  no  dif- 
ference in  the  public  measures  ;  although  the  aspect  of  England 
was  quite  changed  by  the  great  increase  of  trade,  and  the  dimi- 
nution of  taxes,  and  by  better  harvests.  The  renewal  of  specie 
payments,  and  the  increasing  value  of  paper  currency,  was 
highly  favorable  to  manufactures.  The  country  was  now  reco- 
vering from  the  heavy  burden  of  war,  in  which  she  had  so  long 
been  engaged. 

A  daring  conspiracy  to  assassinate  ministers,  called  the  Cato 
street  conspiracy,  was  detected,  for  which  Thistle  wood  and  four 
of  his  companions  paid  the  forfeit  of  their  lives,  and  four  others 
concerned  were  transported  for  life  to  Botany  Bay. 

July  19,  1821.  The  splendid  coronation  of  George  IV.  took 
place  at  Westminster  Abbey. 

On  the  death  of  the  Marquis  of  Londonderry,  better  known 
as  Lord  Castlereagh,  Mr.  Canning  was  called  to  the  cabinet,  as 
secretary  of  foreign  affairs,  Sept.^  16th,  1822.  One  of  the  first 
measures  of  Canning,  was  to  check  the  fanatic  influence  of  the 
French  in  Spain.  In  1823,  England  allowed  her  subjects  to  aid 
the  Greeks,  and  even  acknowledged  their  right  of  blockade. 
With  the  republics  of  South  Am.erica,  she  formed  treaties  of 
alliance  ;  and  in  1825,  formally  acknowledged  the  independence 
of  the  South  American  states. 

In  the  years  1825  and  1826,  the  commercial  difficulties  were 
great,  occasioned  by  the  speculation  in  foreign  loans,  and  in 
the  most  costly  undertakings,  which  led  to  bankruptcies,  and 
gave  an  unusual  shock  to  men  of  business.  "  Bankruptcies 
spread  like  a  vast  fog  over  England,  America,  France,  and 
Germany,  at  the  same  moment.  But  the  vigor  of  England  is 
incalculable."*  Seventy-five  banks  broke  in  the  same  number 
of  days  ;  and  255  joint-stock   companies,  that,  a  week  before, 

*  Croly*s  Life  of  George  IV. 
VOL.  II.  31* 


366  CHAPTER  XIV. 

were  in  high  credit,  guad  ready  for  vast  undertakings,  were  in 
the  Gazette.  And  yet  after  such  sweeping  desolation,  m  an- 
other year  confidence  was  re-established,  commerce  revived, 
and  pubHc  business  went  forward  with  renewed  activity  and 
confidence. 

The  numerous  failures  of  banks,  threatened  the  laboring 
classes  with  ruin,  from  the  derangement  of  the  currency.  To 
remedy  this  alarming  state  of  things,  government  immediately 
ordered  the  coinage  of  sovereigns  with  all  possible  despatch. 
These  were  struck  off  at  the  rate  of  100,000  a  day,  and  sup- 
plied  to  the  country.  Such  was  the  activity  of  the  mint  on  this 
occasion,  that  for  one  week,  150,000  sovereigns  per  day  were 
coined.  The  bank  of  England  issued  temporarily,  two  pound 
notes.  Thus  the  distress  of  the  country  was  in  a  great  measure 
relieved. 

In  1826,  April  4th,  England  united  with  the  court  of  St.  Peters- 
burg to  compel  the  Porte  to  cease  hostilities  with  the  Greeks. 
Mr.  Canning  was  appointed  prime  minister  April  12th,  1827, 
and  died  in  the  month  of  August  of  the  same  year.  His  policy 
was  crowned  by  the  recognition  of  the  South  American  states, 
the  maintenance  of  the  independence  of  Portugal,  and  the  treaty 
signed  at  London,  July  6th,  for  the  settlement  of  the  war  in 
Greece,  which  treaty  led  to  the  battle  of  Navarino.* 

Lord  Goderich  succeeded  as  first  lord  of  the  treasury.  He 
retired  from  office  January  8th,  when  the  Duke  of  Wellington 
was  made  premier,  although  the  duke  had  declared  in  parliament, 
the  year  before,  his  entire  unfitness  for  high  civil  office.  In  April, 
a  Catholic  relief  bill  was  passed. 

George  IV.  King  of  Great  Britain,  died  June  26th,  1830,  and 
was  succeeded  by  his  second  brother,  the  Duke  of  Clarence, 
under  the  title  of  William  IV.  The  administration  of  the  Duke 
of  Wellington  was  overthrown,  November  16th,  and  a  few  days 
after,  a  new  ministry  was  formed,  with  Earl  Grey  at  its  head, 
and  Brougham  lord  chancellor. 

The  Duke  of  Wellington's  overthrow  was  ascribed  to  his 
resistance  of  retrenchment,  and  his  apprehension  of  popular 
riots,  and  opposition  to  parliamentary  reform.  The  political 
obstinacy  of  the  Duke  arose  out  of  his  ignorance  and  contempt 
of  the  people,  and  a  blind  confidence  in  his  own  supremacy  and 
power,    and    a    thorough    aisregard    of    public    opinion,  while 

*  Mr.  Brougham  said  of  Mr.  Canning,  in  the  British  house  of  commons, 
Fanuary  29th,  1828,  "  That  great  man  fell  a  premature  sacrifice  to  his 
struggles  for  the  establishment  of  a  noble  system  of  policy  ;  and  it  was 
to  be  hoped,  that  the  efforts  he  made,  crowned  as  they  were  with  success, 
might  be  followed  up." 


ENGLAND.  367 


t 


events  at  home  and  abroad  perplexed  him.  The  continental 
monarchs  of  the  Holy  Alliance  had  looked  to  the  tory  ministry, 
with  Wellington  at  its  head,  for  security  and  protection.  What 
must  have  been  the  sensation  in  the  courts  of  those  countries, 
when  intelHgence  was  received  of  the  Duke's  overthrow  and 
resignation  ? 

The  whig  ministry,  with  Earl  Grey  at  its  head,  was  pledged 
to  support  the  reform  bill.*  This  ministry  took  upon  them  a 
great  task — an  arduous  responsibility.  That  gross  abuses 
abounded  in  the  British  government,  no  one  could  deny  ;  and 
reform  was  demanded  by  the  united  voice  of  the  nation.  Mr. 
Brougham  was  pledged  to  parliamentary  reform,  the  reduction 
of  expenses  and  sinecures,  and  against  negro  slavery. 

The  ministerial  plan  of  reform,  by  Earl  Grey  and  his  cabinet, 
was  brought  forward  by  Lord  John  Russell,  on  the  1st  of  March  ; 
and  after  a  debate  of  seven  days,  leave  was  given  to  bring  in 
three  bills  for  reforming  the  representation  of  England,  Scotland, 
and  Ireland.  The  bill  was  carried,  after  a  debate  of  two  days, 
to  a  second  reading,  March  22d,  by  a  vote  of  302  to  301  ;  but 
was  lost  on  the  third  reading,  the  vote  being  291  for  the  minis- 
try,  299  against  it. 

The  King  dissolved  the  parliament  in  person,  on  the  22d  of 
A.pril.  In  the  speech  delivered  on  that  occasion,  William  said, 
"  I  have  been  induced  to  resort  to  this  measure  for  the  purpose 
of  ascertaining  the  sense  of  my  people,"  &c. 

The  new  parliament,  of  which  a  large  number  was  pledged 
to  support  reform,  assembled  June  14th,  1831,  and  was  opened 
by  the  King,  who  recommended  the  question  of  a  reform  in 
the  representation,  to  their  earliest  and  most  attentive  considera- 
tion. On  the  24th,  the  reform  bill  was  again  brought  forward 
by  Lord  John  Russell,  in  the  house  of  commons,  and  passed  its 
second  reading  July  6th,  by  a  vote  of  367  to  235,  and  to  a  third 
reading  Sept.  22d,  by  a  vote  of  349  to  236.  The  bill  was  car- 
ried up  to  the  house  of  lords,  and  on  October  8th,  rejected  by  a 
vote  of  199  to  158.  Parliament  was  prorogued  on  the  20th  of 
the  same  month. 

The  rejection  of  the  reform  bill  in  the  house  of  lords,  on  the 
8th,  led  to  strong  manifestations  of  popular  fury  against  the 
nobility,  especially  those  who  had  voted  against  the  bill.  At 
Nottingham  and  Derby,  as  well  as  other  parts  of  the  kingdom^ 
riots  commenced  soon  as  intelligence  of  the  defeat  of  the  bill 

*  In  1797,  Lord  Grey  made  a  motion  for  reform.  Its  failure  caused  that 
great  statesman,  Fox,  to  withdraw  from  parliament,  which  was  by  some 
i\idged  to  be  a  dereliction  of  duty. 


368  CHAPTER  XIV. 

\ 

was  received.  On  the  29th,  30th,  and  31st,  dreadful  riots  tuuk 
place  at  Bristol — many  of  the  public  buildings  and  an  immense 
amount  of  property  were  destroyed  ;  ninety  persons  were  k'lled 
and  wounded  at  that  time ;  afterwards  five  were  executed,  and 
many  were  sentenced  to  transportation.  The  total  damage 
done,  during  this  riot  at  Bristol,  was  estimated  at  300,000  pounds 
sterling. 

Parliament  was  opened  again,  December  6th,  by  the  King ; 
and  on  the  12th,  Lord  John  Russell,  (a  third  time,)  introduced 
a  new  bill  for  reform,  very  similar  to  the  former,  and  declared 
to  be  "equally  efficient."  It  was  read  the  second  time,  on  the 
18th,  by  a  vote  of  324  to  162.  On  March  23d,  it  was  brought 
up  for  a  third  reading,  and  passed  by  a  vote  of  355  to  239. 
The  bill  passed  to  a  second  reading,  in  the  house  of  lords,  April 
13th,  by  a  vote  of  184  to  175.  An  amendment  to  defeat  the 
bill  was  introduced  by  Lord  Lyndhurst,  which  passed  May  8th, 
by  a  vote  of  151  to  116  ;  and  on  May  12th  it  was  lost  by  a 
majority  of  40.  Earl  Grey  advised  the  King  to  create  a  sufii- 
cient  number  of  new  peers  to  secure  the  success  of  the  bill,  ten- 
dering his  resignation  as  the  alternative,  which  was  accepted. 
On  the  resignation  of  ministers,  great  public  excitement  followed. 
The  political  unions,  organized  throughout  the  country,  deter, 
mined  to  refuse  the  payment  of  taxes,  and  demanded  that  the 
ministers  should  be  reinstated.  Earl  Grey  had  stated,  that  he 
would  stand  or  fall  by  this  bill ;  and  that  nothing  less  efficient 
should  be  supported  by  him. 

The  excitement  was  so  great  in  Birmingham,  that  100,000 
persons  assembled  suddenly  and  spontaneously,  and  forwarded 
an  immediate  express  to  London.  There  was  a  firm  determina- 
tion to  have  the  reform  bill  carried,  or  pay  no  taxes  ;  and  this 
determination  was  echoed  from  every  part  of  the  kingdom. 
There  was  no  riot  ;  the  people  had  risen  in  their  collective 
strength,  to  assert  their  just  rights.  Bursts  of  indignant  feel- 
ings were  directed  against  the  bishops  and  nobility.  The 
Duke  of  Wellington  failed  in  his  attempts  to  form  a  ministry  ; 
when  Earl  Grey  and  his  colleagues  were  reinstated  in  office 
May  18th,  with  the  assurance  from  the  King,  of  having  a  suffi- 
cient number  of  peers  created,  to  secure  the  passing  of  the  bill. 
When  the  lords  were  apprized  of  this  fact,  they  resolved  to  let 
it  pass. 

June  14th,  the  bill  passed  a  third  reading,  by  a  vole  of  106 
to  22,  and  the  royal  assent  was  given  by  commission,  on  the  17th 
of  the  same  month.  It  is  worthy  of  remark,  that  not  one  of  the 
bishops  was  present  on  the  final  passage  of  the  bill.  In  answer- 
ing the  forelx)dings  and  objections  made  to  it  by  the  lords,  Eaii 


ENGLAND.  '  369 

Grey  said — *'  That  the  peace,  power,  and  prosperity  of  England 
would  all  be  increased  by  the  reform." 

By  it,  22  new  boroughs,  in  England,  are  to  send  two  new 
members  each  ;  19  new  boroughs,  one  each  ;  62  new  members 
are  added  to  the  English  county  members  ;  three  to  the  county 
members,  and  two  to  the  borough  members  of  Wales  ;  five  to 
the  Scotch  members  ;  and  five  to  the  Irish  members.  By  this 
reform  bill,  56  of  the  old  boroughs,  called  rotten  or  decayed 
boroughs,  have  been  wholly  disfranchised  ;  and  30  boroughs, 
that  before  sent  two  members  each,  are  to  send  but  one.  The 
united  borough  of  Weymouth  and  Melcombe  Regis,  which  before 
sent  four  members,  is  to  send  but  two. 

County  members  under  the  reform  act. — Formerly,  each  county 
sent  two  members,  except  Yorkshire,  which  returned  four — 
total  ^2.  The  counties  in  Wales,  one  each — total  12.  By  the 
reform  act,  the  number  of  the  county  members  of  England  is 
raised  to  144;  those  of  Wales  to  15.  And  26  English  counties 
are  divided,  and  return  four  members  each  ;  7  counties  three 
each  ;  the  ridings  of  Yorkshire,  two  each  ;  and  the  six  remain- 
ing counties,  two  each  ;  and  the  Isle  of  Wight,  one.  Of  the  12 
Welch  counties,  three  send  two  members  each ;  the  remaining 
nine,  one  each. 

The  reform  act  also  extends  to  the  right  of  voting,  in  the  elec 
tion  of  members  for  cities  and  boroughs,  to  every  male  person 
of  full  age,  not  subject  to  any  legal  incapacity,  who  occupies,  as 
owner  or  tenant,  any  house,  warehouse,  shop  or  building,  of  not 
less  than  ten  pounds  yearly  value  :  provided  such  person  pays 
assessed  taxes  and  poor  rates.  And  in  the  election  of  county 
members,  the  elective  franchise  extends  to  every  male  person 
who  shall  be  in  actual  occupation  of  a  freehold  for  life,  or  of 
lands  or  tenements  of  copyhold,  of  the  clear  yearly  value  of  not 
less  than  ten  pounds.  In  England,  a  county  member  of  parlia- 
ment must  possess  real  property  to  the  amount  of  600  pounds 
per  annum  ,•  and  a  borough  member,  300  pounds.  But  in  Scot- 
land, no  such  qualification  is  requisite. 

Lord  John  Russell,  in  his  speech  on  introducing  the  first 
reform  bill,  (March  1,  1831,)  made  the  following  statement 
respecting  the  number  of  voters  that  would  be  added  by  that  bill : 
number  added  in  towns  and  boroughs  in  England  already  sending 
members,  110,000  ;  electors  of  towns  in  England  sending  mem- 
bers for  the  first  time,  50,000  ;  electors  in  London,  who  will 
obtain  the  right  of  voting,  95,000  ;  increase  of  electors  in  Scot- 
land, 60,000  ;  in  Ireland,  perhaps  40,000  ;  increase  in  the  coun- 
ties of  England,  100,000.  "  It  is  my  opinion,  therefore,"  said 
Lord  Russell,  "  that  the  whole  measure  will  add  to  the  constitu- 


370  CHAPTER  xn'. 

ency  of  the  commons  house  of  parUament,  about  half  a  million 
of  persons,  and  these  all  connected  with  the  property  of  the 
country,  having  a  valuable  stake  amongst  us,  and  deeply  mte- 
rested  in  our  institutions." 

A  sufficient  number  of  booths  are  to  be  prepared,  so  that  not 
more  than  600  electors  are  to  poll  at  one  compartment.  The 
polling  to  continue,  if  required,  for  two  successive  days  only ; 
for  seven  hours  on  the  first  day,  and  for  eight  hours  on  the 
second  :  but  the  poll  is  not  on  any  account,  to  be  kept  open  later 
than  4  o'clock,  on  the  second  day. 

July  13.  The  Scotch  reform  bill  passed  to  a  third  reading  in 
the  English  house  of  lords  ;  and  on  the  30th  of  the  same  month, 
the  Irish  reform  bill  passed  in  the  English  house  of*"  lords. 
August  13th,  the  Irish  tythe  composition  bill  was  read  a  third 
time  and  passed,  in  the  English  house  of  lords.  On  the  16th  of 
August,  the  parliament  of  England  was  prorogued  to  the  16th 
of  October. 

The  successful  issue  of  a  reform  in  parliament  has  been 
achieved  mainly  through  the  perseverance,  wisdom,  and  stern 
consistency  of  Henry  Brougham,  who  was,  for  many  years,  the 
leader  of  the  opposition  in  the  house  of  commons, — a  firm  and 
decided  enemy  to  the  measures  of  the  aristocrats  and  leagued 
despots.  For  more  than  twenty  years,  he  has  fostered  and 
guided  the  spirit  of  reform ;  and  we  may  here,  with  great  pro- 
priety, mention  some  of  his  labors  in  this  great  cause. 

In  1811,  he  introduced  a  bill  into  the  British  parliament, 
declariwg  all  dealing  in  slaves,  by  British  subjects,  a  felony, 
and  punishable  as  such.  This  bill  became  a  law,  and  by  it  was 
first  recognized  the  principle,  that  the  traffickers  in  human  flesh 
are  pirates,  and  ought  to  be  treated  as  such.  And  the  subject 
of  slavery,  as  it  exists  in  the  British  West  Indies,  has  been  re- 
peatedly  brought  by  him  before  the  nation. 

In  1816,  he  commenced  his  publie  efforts  in  favor  of  popular 
education.  He  then  introduced  into  parliament,  a  motion  for 
the  appointment  of  a  committee  to  inquire  into  the  state  of  edu- 
cation amons:  the  lower  orders.  This  motion  was  carried,  and 
an  education  committee  of  forty  members,  with  Mr.  Brougham 
at  their  head,  was  appointed.  The  labors  of  this  committee,  or 
rather  of  its  indefatigable  chairman,  were  immense ;  and  for 
three  j'-ears  they  continued  to  spread  facts  before  the  British  peo- 
ple. The  exposition  of  corruptions  in  the  management  of  trust 
funds  for  grammar  schools,  was  no  small  part  of  their  labor. 

In  1819,  he  moved  for  instituting  a  committee  of  inquiry  into 
the  condition  of  charitable  endowments,  to  complete  the  work 
which  the  education  committee  had  begun — a  measure  which 


ENGLAND.  371 

the  ministers  were  unable  successfully  to  withstand,  and  which, 
notwithstanding  their  continued  opposition,  produced  important 
results. 

In  1820,  he  thought  the  time  had  arrived,  in  which  to  b>-ing 
forward  the  grand  measure  which  he  had  at  first  contemplated. 
He  accordingly  came  out  with  a  bill  to  extend  the  blessings  ot 
education  to  the  poor,  by  the  estabhshment  of  common  schools^ 
But  in  this  he  did  not  accomplish  his  benevolent  designs.  He 
published  his  "  Practical  Observations  on  Popular  Education," 
and  to  his  sole  suggestion,  "  the  Society  for  the  Diffusion  of  Use- 
ful Knowledge,"  whose  publications  are  now  scattered  far  and 
wide,  owed  its  origin. 

His  next  labor,  greater  than  all  the  twelve  labors  of  Hercules 
himself,  was  directed  to  a  reform  of  the  English  common  law, 
and  cleansing  the  courts  of  justice  of  the  rubbish  which  a  bar- 
barous age  had  left  behind,  and  time  had  rendered  intolerable. 
His  efforts  here,  as  elsewhere,  were  powerful  and  irresistible. 
In  1828,  he  introduced  his  celebrated  motion,  that  an  address  be 
presented  to  his  majesty,  praying  that  he  would  issue  a  comis- 
sion  for  inquiring  into  the  defects  occasioned  by  time  or  other- 
wise, in  the  laws  of  this  realm,  and  into  the  measures  necessary 
for  removing  the  same.  Upon  this  motion,  his  speech,  delivered 
in  the  house  of  commons  February  28,  1828,  comprises,  in  the 
printed  report,  139  pages.  He  lays  open  the  whole  existing 
condition  of  the  common  law  in  a  masterly  manner,  equalled 
only  by  the  wisdom  displayed  in  the  remedies  proposed.  The 
motion  was  carried,  after  an  amendment  agreed  to  by  him 
for  the  sake  of  conciliation,  had  limited  its  operations  to  the 
courts  of  justice,  and  the  law  of  real  property.  The  commis- 
sioners appointed,  reported  in  1829,  and  their  reports  were  ela- 
borate and  valuable,  and  have  already  been  in  some  measure 
acted  upon. 

As  lord  chancellor  of  Great  Britain,  Brougham's  labors  have 
been  eminent.  He  has  greatly  expedited  the  administration  of 
justice  in  his  court,  and  cleared  the  docket  of  cases  which  had, 
for  a  great  length  of  time,  been  accumulating. 

Thus  it  appears  how  much  England,  as  well  as  the  whole 
civilized  world,  owes  to  the  labors  of  this  one  individual  in  the 
cause  of  freedom  and  of  man.  He  has  directed  his  exertions 
TO  the  right  quarter.  To  education  he  looked,  as  the  founda. 
tion  upon  which  the  liberties  of  a  nation  rest.  He  has  well  said, 
that  "  he  feared  not  any  unconstitutional  attack  on  the  liberties 
of  the  people  of  England,  from  the  Duke  of  Wellington.  There 
was  another  person  abroad,  more  powerful  than  the  Duke — the 


372  CHAPTEH  XIV. 

scnoolmasler  was  abroad."*  And  in  conclusion,  it  is  gratifying 
to  think  that  Brougham  still  lives,  and  that  his  exertions  in  favoi 
of  liberty  will  cease  only  with  his  life. 

From  a  list  of  the  members  of  the  new  parliament,  it  appears 
there  were  514  reformers,  and  144  conservatives — thus  giving 
to  the  ministry  a  majority  of  370. 

This  list  of  the  members,  given  in  the  broad  pages  of  the 
London  Times,  must  have  been  a  gladdening  and  a  heart-cheer 
ing  sight  to  the  reformers,  and  to  the  great  body  of  the  English 
nation,  whose  hopes  had  so  long  been  blasted  by  a  profligate 
ministry,  aided  by  the  most  brilliant  and  seducing  powers  of  elo- 
quence. The  oratory  of  Burke  and  Pitt  had  so  fascinated  and 
bewildered  many  understandings,  both  at  home  and  abroad,  as 
to  prevent  them  from  judging  aright  on  the  justice  and  feasibility 
of  a  measure  that  had  so  long  been  urged  by  many  of  England's 
wisest  patriots. 

*  In  a  speech  delivered  in  the  British  house  of  commons,  Jan.  29,  1828. 


NOTES. 


CHAPTER  I.— Introduction. 

Diplomatics  ought  not  to  be  confounded  with  diplomacy^  which  means 
a  knowledge  of  the  interests  of  different  states,  and  the  policy  of  foreign 
courts,  &c.,  by  means  of  ambassadors,  envoys,  consuls,  &lc. 
The  first  that  undertook  to  teach  this  science  in  a  university,  was  the 
celebrated  Corning,  a  professor  at  Helmstadt.  His  programme  or  pro- 
spectus was  published  in  1660.  Godfrey  Aghenwall,  a  professor  at 
Gottingen,  1748,  is  regarded  as  the  inventor  of  the  name. 
Before  this  time  Pope  Leo  X.  had  paid  some  attention  to  the  reforma- 
tion of  the  calendar.  A  letter  which  he  wrote  on  the  subject  to  Henry 
VIII.  of  England,  may  be  seen  in  Rymer's  Fcedera,  vol  vi.  p.  119. 
From  the  year  1793  to  the  end  of  1805,  the  French,  by  a  decree  of  the 
national  convention  of  the  5th  of  October,  adopted  a  method  of  com- 
puting by  what  they  called  the  republican  year.  It  began  at  midnight 
of  the  autumnal  equinox,  viz.  the  21st  or  22d  of  September.  It  was 
divided  into  twelve  months  of  thirty  days  each,  followed  by  five  or  six 
supplementary  days.  This  innovation,  however,  ceased  on  the  31st  of 
December,  1805. 

It  is  to  this  circumstance  that  the  term  ^ra  owes  its  origin.  It  is  not 
a  classical  word,  but  was  first  used  by  the  Spaniards  ;  and  is  merely 
the  initials  or  first  letters  of  Anno  Erat  Reganante  Augusto.  T. 
This  calculation,  however,  was  incorrect,  inasmuch  as  nineteen  exact 
solar  revolutions  amount  only  to  6939  days,  14  hours,  26',  15"  ;  while 
235  true  lunations,  contained  in  the  cycle  of  19  years,  only  give  6939 
days,  16  hours,  31',  45".  The  lunar  cycle  consequently  exceeded  the 
19  solar  revolutions  by  2  hours,  5',  30".  This  error  was  corrected  at 
the  reformation  of  the  calendar,  by  Gregory  XIII. 

NOTES  TO  CHAPTER  II.— Period  I. 

The  name  of  Alemanni,  erroneously  applied  afterwards  to  all  the  Ger- 
man nations,  was  originally  restricted  to  a  particular  tribe,  which  we 
here  designate  by  the  name  of  the  Alemanns,  to  distinguish  them  from 
the  modern  Germans  (Allemands.) 

The  Guttones  of  Pliny,  the  Gothones  or  Gotones  of  Tacitus,  and  the 
Gythones  of  Ptolemy,  whom  these  authors  place  in  the  northern  part 
of  ancient  Germany,  near  the  Vistula,  were  most  probably  one  and  the 
same  nation  with  the  Goths  ;  and  ought  not  to  be  confounded  with  the 
Get(B,  a  people  of  ancient  Dacia. 

We  find  a  Gothic  bishop,  named  Theophilus,  among  the  bishops  who 
signed  the  acts  of  the  first  Council  of  Nice.  Ulfilas,  a  Gothic  bishop 
towards  the  middle  of  the  fourth  century,  translated  the  Bible  into  the 
VOL.  II.  32 


874  NOTEb. 

language  of  his  nation,  making  use  of  the  Greek  and  Roman  churac 
ters.  His  Four  Gospels,  preserved  in  the  Codex  Argenieus,  in  the 
librar^'  at  Upsal,  is  the  most  ancient  specimen  we  liave  of  the  German 
language,  of  which  tlie  Gothic  is  one  of  the  principal  dialects.  Vide 
Fragments  of  Uljilas,  published  by  M.  Zahn.     1805. 

4  The  identity  of  the  Franks  with  these  German  tribes,  may  be  shown 
from  a  passage  of  St.  Jerome,  as  well  as  by  the  Table  Peutingerievne. 
ou  Theodosienve,  so  called,  because  it  is  supposed  to  have  been  drawn 
up  under  the  Emperor  Theodosius,  about  the  beginning  of  the  fifth 
century  ;  though  M.  Mannert,  in  his  Treatise  De  Tab.  Peuting,  oitate, 
has  proved  that  it  is  as  old  as  the  third  century ;  and  that  the  copy 
preserved  in  the  library  at  Vienna,  and  published  by  M.  de  Scheyl,  is 
but  an  incorrect  copy,  which  he  attributes  to  a  monk  of  the  thirteenth 
century.  From  this  Table,  it  appears  that,  in  the  third  century,  the 
name  Francia  was  given  to  that  part  of  Germany  which  is  situate  in 
the  Lower  Rhine  in  Westphalia  ;  and  that  the  Bructeri,  the  Chauci, 
Chamavi,  Cherusci,  Ampsivarii,  &c.  were  the  same  as  the  Franks. 
The  names  of  Salians  and  Ripuarians,  evidently  taken  from  the  situa- 
tion of  some  of  these  tribes  on  the  Rhine,  the  Yssel,  or  Saal,  appear  to 
have  been  given  them  by  the  Romans,  and  were  afterwards  retained 
by  them. 

5  Ammianus  Marcellinus,  Lib.  31  c.  2.  Jornandes  De  Eebus  Geticis, 
cap.  35.  This  latter  historian  gives  the  following  portrait  of  Attila, 
King  of  the  Huns.  "  His  stature  was  short,  his  chest  broad,  his  head 
rather  large,  his  eyes  small,  his  beard  thin,  his  hair  grey,  his  nose  flat, 
his  complexion  dark  and  hideous,  bearing  evidence  of  his  origin.  He 
was  a  man  of  much  cunning,  who  fought  by  stratagem  before  he  en- 
gaged  in  battles." 

6  We  may  judge  of  the  extent  of  the  kingdom  of  the  Burgundians  by 
the  signatures  of  twenty.five  bishops,  who  were  present  at  the  Council 
of  Epao,  held  by  Sigismond,  King  of  Burgundy,  in  517.  These  bish- 
ops were  the  following :  Besancon,  Langres,  Autun,  Chalons,  Lyon, 
Valence,  Orange,  Vaison,  Carpentras,  Cavaillon,  Sisteron,  Apt.  Gap, 
Die,  St.  Paul-trois-Chetaux,  Viviers,  Vienne,  Embrun,  Grenoble,  Ge- 
neva, Tarantaise,  Avenche,  Windische,  Martigny  in  the  Bas-Valais, 
Taurentum  in  Provence.  Vide  Labbei,  Acta  Concil.  vol.  iv.  p.  1573, 
1581. 

7  Many  kings  and  chiefs  of  different  nations  marched  under  his  command 
Jornandes  (cap.  38.)  observes — "  As  for  the  rest,  a  rabble  of  kings,  if 
they  may  be  so  called,  and  leaders  of  divers  nations  ;  they  waited  like 
satellites  the  orders  of  Attila  ;  and  if  he  gave  but  a  wink  or  a  nod, 
every  one  attended  with  fear  and  trembling,  and  executed  his  com- 
mands  without  a  murmur.  Attila  alone,  like  a  king  of  kings,  had  the 
supreme  charge  and  authority  over  them  all." 

8  The  Salian  Franks  are  distinct  from  the  Ripuarian,  who  formed  a  sepa- 
rate  kingdom,  the  capital  of  which  was  Cologne.  There  were  also, 
about  the  end  of  the  fifth  century,  particular  kings  of  the  Franks  at 
Terouane,  Mams,  and  Cambray,  all  of  whom  were  subdued  bv  Clovisv 
shortly  before  his  death  in  511. 

9  Clovis  took  from  th.e  Alemanns  a  part  of  their  territories,  of  which  he 
formed  a  distinct  province,  known  afterwards  by  the  name  of  France 
on  the  Rhine.  They  retained,  however,  under  their  hereditary  chiefs, 
Alsace,  with  the  districts  situated  beyond  the  Rhine,  and  bounded  on 
the  north  by  the  Oos,  the  Entz,  the  Necker,  the  Muhr,  the  Wernit* 
and  the  Jagst.     Vide  Schoepflin,  Alsatia  Tllnst.  vol.  i.  p.  630 


NOTES.  375 

10  The  Visigoths  then  retained  no  other  possessions  in  Gaul  than  Septi- 
mania,  or  Languedoc.  Their  territories  between  the  Rhone,  the  Alps, 
and  the  Mediterranean,  passed  to  the  Ostrogoths,  as  the  reward  for  ser- 
vices which  the  latter  had  rendered  them  in  their  wars  with  the  Franks. 

11  Scheidingen,  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Unstrut,  about  three  leagues  from 
Naumburg  on  the  Saal,  is  supposed  to  have  been  the  residence  of  the 
ancient  kings  of  Thuringia.  Venantius  Fortunatus,  the  friend  of  queen 
Radegonde,  a  princess  of  Thuringia,  gives  a  poetical  description  of  it 
in  his  elegy  De  Excidis  Thuringise. 

12  Belisarius  was  recalled  from  Italy  by  the  Emperor  Justinian,  in  549. 
He  afterwards  incurred  the  displeasure  of  the  court  of  Constantinople  ; 
but  what  modern  writers  have  asserted,  that  he  was  blind,  and  reduced 
to  beg  his  bread,  is  destitute  of  foundation.  Mascow,  Geshichte  der 
Teutschen. 

13  Agathias,  lib.  1.  p.  17,  asserts,  that  the  Goths  abandoned  the  nation  of 
the  Alemanns  to  the  Franks,  in  order  to  interest  the  laiter  in  their  cause 
against  the  Greeks.  The  same  was  the  case  with  that  part  of  Gaul, 
situate  between  the  Alps,  the  Rhone,  and  the  Mediterranean,  which 
pertained  to  the  Ostrogoths,  and  which  they  ceded  to  the  Franks,  on 
condition  that  they  would  never  furnish  supplies  to  the  Greeks. 

14  The  name  of  the  Bavarians  does  not  occur  in  history  before  the  middle 
of  the  sixth  century,  when  Jomandes,  De  Reh.  Geticis,  and  Venantius 
Fortunatus.  in  his  poems,  speak  of  them  for  the  first  time.  Mannert, 
Geschichte  Bajoariens,  p.  108,  reckons  the  Bavarians  an  association  of 
several  German  tribes ;  the  Heruls,  Rugians,  Turcilingians,  and  Scy- 
rians,  all  orig'nally  emigrating  from  the  shores  of  the  Baltic.  The  new 
settlements  which  they  formed  in  Upper  Germany,  comprehended  that 
part  of  ancient  Rhetia,  Vindelicia,  and  Noricum,  which  lies  between 
the  Danube,  the  Lech,  and  the  Noce  in  Pannonia,  and  the  Tyrol. 
They  were  governed  by  kings  or  chiefs,  who,  from  the  year  595,  were 
dependants  on  the  Frankish  crown. 

15  Clovis  left  the  Alemanns,  after  their  defeat,  a  considerable  part  of  their 
territories  under  hereditary  chiefs,  who  acknowledged  the  superiority 
of  the  Frankish  kings.  Such  of  the  Alemanns  as  Theodoric  King  of 
Italy  then  received  into  a  i)art  of  Rhetia  and  Noricum,  continued  de- 
pendants on  the  kingdom  of  the  Ostrogoths,  till  the  decay  of  that  mo- 
narchy, near  the  middle  of  the  sixth  century,  when  they  became  subject 
to  th-  dominion  of  the  Franks. 

16.  Tacitus  De  Moribus  German.,  cap.  2.  It  was  the  prerogative  of  free- 
men to  have  the  honor  of  bearing  arms.  Even  bishops  and  ecclesias- 
tics,  when  admitted  into  the  national  assemblies,  and  to  the  rights  and 
privileges  of  freemen,  never  failed  to  claim  this  military  dignity  ;  and 
occupied,  like  others,  their  ranks  in  the  army. 

17  We  find  among  the  German  nations,  from  the  remotest  times,  the  dis- 
tinction into  nobles,  freemen,  and  serfs  ;  a  distinction  which  they  stilV 
preserved,  in  their  new  settlements  in  the  Roman  empire. 

18  Called  Ordeals.  Besides  the  trial  hy  single,  combal,  there  v/ere  others 
by  hot  iron,  boiling  or  cold  water,  the  cross,  ^c.      Vide  Ducange  Gloss. 

16  The  Goths,  Vandals,  Suevi,  and  Alans,  were  already  Christians,  when 
they  settled  within  the  bounds  of  the  Western  Empire.  They  follow, 
ed  the  doctrines  of  Arius,  which  they  had  imbibed  in  the  east ;  and, 
which  the  Suevi  of  Galicia  abandoned  for  the  orthodox  creed  under 
their  King  Cariaric,  about  551  ;  and  the  Visigoths  of  Spain,  under  their 
King  Recarede,  in  589.  The  Lombards  of  Italy  were,  at  first,  Arians, 
but  became  Catholics,  under  their  King  Agilulphus,  in  602.     The  Van. 


876  NOTES. 

dais  and  Ostrogoths,  on  the  contrary,  having  persisted  in  Arianism ; 
this  perseverance  may  be  numbered  among  the  causes  that  hastened 
the  destruction  of  their  monarchy,  both  in  Italy  and  Africa.  As  to  the 
Burgundians  they  did  no;  embrace  Christianity  till  after  their  establish- 
ment in  Gaul.  Their  example  was  soon  followed  by  the  Franks,  who 
likewise  protected  the  dissemination  of  the  orthodox  faith  among  the 
German  nations,  settled  in  their  dominions  beyond  the  Rhine.  The 
Christian  religion  was  introduced,  about  the  end  of  the  sixth  century, 
among  the  Anglo-Saxons  in  Britain,  by  some  Benedictine  monks, 
whom  Pope  Gregory  I.  had  sent  there.  Ethelbert,  King  of  Kent,  was 
the  first  of  the  Anglo-Saxon  kings  that  embraced  Christianity,  by  the 
persuasion,  it  is  said,  of  his  queen.  Bertha,  daughter  of  Charibert  I. 
King  of  Paris. 

20  The  possessions  of  the  Ostrogoths  in  Gaul,  lying  between  the  Rhine, 
the  Alps,  and  the  Mediterranean,  were  ceded  to  the  Franks  about  536. 

SI  Eginhard,  VHa  Carol.  Mag.,  cap.  11.  It  seems  then  an  error  in  history, 
to  designate  these  princes  as  a  race  of  kings,  who  had  all  degenerated 
into  a  state  of  imbecility  or  idiocy.  (Of  this  opinion  was  the  Abbe 
Vertot,  who  endeavors  to  rescue  these  monarchs  from  this  generally 
received  imputation.     Vide  Memoir  de  I'Academie,  vol.  iv.  T.) 

^2  This  same  St.  Boniface,  in  744,  indiiced  the  archbishops  of  France  to 
receive,  after  his  example,  the  pallium  from  Pope  Zacharias,  acknow. 
lodging  the  jurisdiction  and  supremacy  of  the  Roman  See.  This  ac 
knowlodgment  of  the  Romish  supremacy,  had  already  taken  place  in 
England,  in  GOl  and  627,  when  the  archbishops  of  Canterbury  and 
York,  received  the  pontificial  pallium.     Vide  Bede.  List.  Eccles. 

23  It  is  alleged  that  state  politics  had  no  small  share  in  favoring  this  zeal. 
Not  only  did  the  emperors  reckon,  by  abolishing  images,  to  weaken 
the  excessive  power  of  the  monks  who  domineered  over  the  Byzantine 
court;  but  they  regarded  also  the  destruction  of  this  heretical  worship, 
as  the  only  means  of  arresting  the  persecutions  which  the  Mahometans 
then  exercised  against  the  Christians  in  the  east,  whom  they  treated  as 
idolaters,  on  account  of  their  veneration  for  images. 

24  The  name  Exarchate  was  then  given  to  the  province  of  Ravenna,  be- 
cause it,  as  well  as  the  Pentapolis,  was  immediately  subject  to  the  ex. 
arch  as  governor-general  ;  while  the  other  parts  of  Grecian  Italy  were 
governed  by  delegates,  who  ruled  in  the  name  and  authority  of  the 
exarch. 

25  It  was  during  his  sojourn  at  Chiersi  that  Pope  Stephen  II.  gave  the  de- 
cisions that  we  find  in  Sirmondi,  Concil,  Gall.  vol.  II.  16.  Anastasius 
(in  Muratori,  vol.  III.  p.  168,  186)  mentions  Chiersi  as  the  place  of  this 
donation,  which  he  also  says  was  signed  by  Pepin  and  his  two  sons. 
This  prospective  grant  is  even  attested  by  the  letter  which  Stephen  II. 
addressed  to  Pepin  and  his  sons,  immediately  on  his  return  to  Rome, 
exhorting  them  to  fulfil  their  engagements  without  delay. 

2^  The  Pope,  in  his  letters  to  Pepin,  calls  this  donation  an  augmentation 
of  the  Romish  dominion  ;  an  extension  of  the  Romish  territory,  &c. 
Cenni,  vol.  I.  p.  85,  124.  Besides  the  city  and  duchy  of  Rome,  Anas, 
tasius  mentions  various  former  grants  of  territories  to  the  Romish 
Cliurch.  The  same  author  informs  us,  that  the  original  of  Pepin's  do- 
nation existed  in  his  time  in  the  archives  of  the  Romish  See,  and  he 
has  recorded  the  places  gifted  to  the  church. 

27  Different  interpretations  have  been  given  to  the  word  Saracens,  which 
the  Greeks,  and  after  them  the  Latins,  have  applied  to  the  Arabs.  Some 
explain  it  by  robbers  or  brigands,  and  others  by  Orientals,  or  natives 


NOTES,  377 

of  the  east.  Casiri.  Bibl.  Arab.  Hist.  vol.  II.  p.  19.  Some  pretend  to 
derive  this  appellation  from  the  Arabic  word  Sarrag,  or  its  plural  Sar- 
■'ogiv,  which  means,  men  on  horseback,  or  cavaliers. 
Ui:  We  may  judge  of  the  ferocity  of  the  Arabs  at  this  time,  from  a  passage 
\)f  Rasis,  an  Arabic  author,  in  Casiri,  (Bibl.  Arab.  Hist.  vol.  ii,  p.  322.) 
Muza,  in  a  fit  of  jealousy,  had  caused  Tarec  to  be  bastinadoed  at  Tole- 
do, and  yet  continued  to  employ  him  as  a  general.  The  caliph,  to  avenge 
Tarec,  caused  Muza  to  be  bastinadoed  in  his  turn,  when  he  came  to 
Damascus  to  lay  at  his  royal  feet  the  spoils  of  all  Spain.  His  son,  whom 
he  had  left  governor  of  Spain,  was  killed  by  order  of  the  caliph.  Such 
was  the  fate  of  the  Arabic  conquerors  of  Spain. 

29  The  Abbassides  took  their  name  from  Abbas,  the  paternal  uncle  of 
Mahomet,  of  whom  they  were  descended.  The  Ommiades  were  de 
scended  from  Ommiah,  a  more  distant  relation  of  the  prophet. 

30  Don  Pel^o,  the  king  whom  the  Spaniards  regard  as  the  founder  of  thii< 
new  state,  is  a  personage  no  less  equivocal  than  the  Pharamond  of  the 
Franks.  Isidorus  Pagensis,  a  Spanish  author  of  that  time,  published 
by  Sandoval  in  his  collection  in  1C34,  knew  nothing  of  him.  He  extols, 
on  the  contrary,  the  exploits  of  Theodemir,  whom  the  Visigoths,  ac- 
cording to  the  Arabic  authors  quoted  by  Casiri,  had  chosen  as  their 
king  after  the  unfortunate  death  of  Roderic.  The  chronicle  of  Alphonso 
III.,  and  that  of  Albayda,  which  are  commonly  cited  in  favor  of  Don 
Pelago,  are  both  as  late  as  the  beginning  of  the  tenth  century,  and 
relate  things  so  marvellous  of  this  pretended  founder  of  the  kingdom 
of  Leon,  that  it  is  impossible  to  give  credit  to  them. 

31  This  dynasty,  after  the  year  827,  effected  the  conquest  of  the  greater 
part  of  Sicily  from  the  Greeks  ;  but  they  were  deprived  of  it,  in  940, 
by  the  Fatimites,  who  v»ere  succeeded  in  the  following  century  by  the 
Zerides  in  Africa,     (Vide  Period  IV.  under  Spam.) 

32  The  celebrated  Gerbert,  born  in  Auvergne,  and  afterwards  Pope  Sil- 
vester II.,  was  among  the  first  that  repaired  to  Spain,  about  the  middle 
of  the  tenth  century,  to  study  mathematics  under  the  Arabs.  Numbers 
afterwards  imitated  his  example. 

32  There  is  preserved  in  the  library  of  the  Escurial  in  Spain,  1851  Arabic 
MSS.  which  escaped  the  conflagration  of  1671,  and  which  have  been 
amply  described  by  Casiri  in  his  Bibl.  Arab.  Hisp. 

NOTES  TO  CHAPTER  III Period  II. 

1  The  immense  intrenchments  or  fortifications  of  the  Avars,  called  Rhin- 
gos  by  the  Franks,  were  destroyed  by  Charlemagne,  to  the  number  of 
nine.  A  part  of  Pannonia  and  the  tenitory  of  the  Avars  he  left  in  pos- 
session of  the  native  chiefs,  and  the  Slavian  princes,  who  acknow- 
ledged  themselves  his  vassals  and  tributaries.  The  Slavi,  the  Moravi- 
ans, and  Bulgarians,  seem  to  have  then  seized  on  a  part  of  the  territo- 
ries of  the  Avars  lying  beyond  the  Danube  and  the  Theyss.  It  was 
on  account  of  this  war,  that  Charlemagne  established  the  Eastern 
March  (Austria)  against  the  Avars,  and  that  he  conceived  also  the  pro- 
ject  of  joining  the  Danube  and  the  Rhine,  by  a  canal  drawn  from  the 
river  Altmuhl  to  Rednitz. 

2  Charles  took  the  oath  in  the  Teutonic  language,  Louis  in  the  Romance 
language  ;  the  forms  of  which  have  been  preserved  by  the  Abbe  Nith- 
ard,  a  cousin  of  these  princes.  We  may  observe,  that  this  is  the  most 
ancient  monument  of  the  Romance  language  ;  out  of  which  has  sprung 
the  modern  French. 

VOL.  II.  32* 


378  NOTES 

3  This  treaty,  which  has  been  preserved  by  the  author  of  the  Annals  of 
St.  Berlin,  mentions  all  the  countries  and  principal  places  assigned  tu 
each  of  the  brothers.  It  forms  a  valuable  document  in  the  geography 
of  the  middle  ages. 

4  As  an  example  of  this,  it  is  said  that  a  nobleman  of  Suabia,  named  Eti- 
chon,  brother  to  the  Empress  Judith,  quarrelled  with  his  own  son,  and 
refused  to  see  him,  because,  in  his  estimation,  he  had  debased  himselt 
by  receiving  as  fiefs,  from  Louis  the  Gentle,  a  certain  number  of  his 
own  lands,  situated  in  Upper  Bavaria. 

5  The  Danes  and  the  Swedes  dispute  with  each  other  the  honor  of  these 
pretended  heroes,  who  signalized  themselves  in  the  Norman  piracies. 
It  is  without  doubt,  that  all  the  tribes  of  ancient  Scandinavia,  in  their 
turn,  took  part  in  these  expeditions.  According  to  the  Monk  of  St. 
Gall,  it  was  not  till  about  the  end  of  the  war  of  Charlemagne  with  the 
Avars,  i.  e.  796,  that  the  Normans  began  to  infest  the  jjoasts  of  the 
Frankish  empire.  In  order  to  stop  their  incursions,  Charles  construct 
ed  a  fleet,  and  stationed  in  the  harbors  and  mouths  of  rivers,  troops  and 
guard-ships ;  precautions  which  were  neglected  by  his  successors. 

6  The  beautiful  palaces  which  Charles  had  constructed  at  Nimeguen  and 
Aix-la-Chapelle,  were  burnt  to  the  ground  by  the  Normans  in  881-2. 
At  the  same  time,  they  plundered  Liege,  Maestricht,  Tongres,  Cologne, 
Bonn,  Zulpich,  Nuys,  and  Treves. 

7  Nester,  a  monk  of  Kiovia,  and  the  first  annalist  of  Russia,  about  the 
end  of  the  eleventh  century,  says  the  Russians,  whom  he  calls  also 
Waregues,  came  from  Scandinavia,  or  the  country  of  the  Normans. 
He  assures  us,  that  it  was  from  them  that  the  state  of  Novogorod  took 
the  name  of  Russia.  The  author  of  the  annals  of  St.  Bertin,  the  first 
that  mentions  the  1  'ans  (lihos)  a.  d.  839,  assigns  Sweden  as  their 
original  country,  i  jrand  also,  bishop  of  Cremona,  in  the  court  of 
Constantinople  by  Otho  the  Great,  attests,  in  his  history,  that  the 
Greeks  gave  the  name  o*'  Eussians  to  the  people,  who  in  the  west  are 
called  Normans.  The  Finns,  Laplanders,  and  Estonians,  at  this  day, 
call  the  Swedes,  Boots,  Routzi,  or  Rootslane.  It  is  likely  that  from 
them,  being  nearest  neighbors  of  the  Swedes,  this  name  passed  to  the 
Slavonian  tribes.  Hence  it  would  seem,  tnat  it  is  in  Sweden  that  we 
must  look  for  Russia,  prior  to  the  times  of  Ruric  ;  in  the  same  way. 
as  ancient  France  is  to  be  found  in  Westphalia  and  Hesse,  before  the 
days  of  Clodion,  and  the  founding  of  the  new  monarchy  of  the  Franks 
in  Gaul. 

8  The  Orkney  Isles,  the  Hebrides,  the  Shetlands,  and  the  Isles  of  Man, 
passed,  in  course  of  time,  from  the  dominion  of  the  Norwegians  to 
that  of  the  Scottish  kings,  while  the  Faroe  Isles  remained  constantly 
annexed  to  the  kingdom  of  Norway. 

9  Olaus  IL,  King  of  Norway,  had  rendered  the  Icelanders  tributaries,  but 
they  soon  renewed  their  independence  ;  and  it  was  not  till  the  time  of 
Habo  V.  and  Magnus  VII.,  in  1261  and  1264,  that  they  submitted  to  the 
dominion  of  Norway,  when  the  republican  government  of  the  island 
was  suppressed.  Iceland,  when  a  republic,  furnished  the  annalists  of 
the  north.  The  most  distinguished  of  these  is  Snorre  Sturleson, 
who  wrote  a  history  of  the  kings  of  Norway  about  the  beginning  of  the 
thirteenth  century.     This  celebrated  man  died  in  1241. 

10  The  Chazars,  a  Turkish  tribe,  ruled,  at  the  time  we  now  speak,  over 
the  northern  part  of  the  Crimea  ;  as  also  the  vast  regions  lying  to  the 
north  of  the  Euxine  and  Caspian  seas.  The  Onogurs  or  CJgurs,  sup- 
posed to  be  the  same  as  Hungarians,  were   subject  to  them.     These 


NOTES,  379 

Cfeazars  having  embraced  Christianity  in  the  ninth  century,  aaopted  a 
won  of  syncretism,  which  admitted  all  sorts  indifferently.  Hence  the 
name  of  Chazars  or  Ketzers  has  been  given,  by  the  Germar  divines4  to 
every  species  of  heretics.  Their  power  vanished  about  the  beginuing 
of  the  eleventh  century. 

,  I  The  Patzinacites  or  Kanglians,  also  a  Turkish  and  wandermg  tribe- 
originally  inhabited  the  borders  of  the  Jaik  and  the  Volga,  between  these 
two  rivers.  Expelled  from  these  countries  by  the  Uzes  or  Cumans, 
who  combined  with  the  Chazars  against  them,  they  attacked  the  Hunga- 
rians, whom  they  stript  of  their  possessions,  lying  between  the  Tanais. 
the  Dnieper,  and  the  Dniester,  (a.  d.  884.) 

t2  The  Moravians  were  the  first  of  the  Slavian  tribes  that  embraced  Chris- 
tianity. The  Greek  Emperor  Michael,  at  their  own  request,  sent  them, 
in  863,  Cyril  and  Methodius,  two  learned  Greeks  of  Thessalonica,  who 
invented  the  Slavonian  alphabet,  and  translated  into  their  language  the 
sacred  books,  which  the  Russians  still  use. 

13  The  Patzinacites  possessed  all  the  countries  situated  between  the  Aluta, 
the  Dnieper,  and  the  Donez,  which  near  its  source,  separated  them 
from  the  Chazars.  They  gradually  disappeared  from  history  about  the 
end  of  the  eleventh  century,  when  they  were  dispossessed  or  subdued 
by  the  Cumans. 

14  Historians  have  commonly  ascribed  to  this  prince  the  division  of  Eng. 
land  into  counries,  hundreds,  and  tithes,  as  also  the  institution  of  juries. 

15  From  the  occupation  of  Greenland  and  Finland  by  the  Normans,  we 
may  infer  that  North  America  was  known  to  them  several  centuries 
before  it  was  discovered  by  the  English. 

NOTES  TO  CHAPTER  IV.— Period  HL 

1  The  Hungarians  having  made  a  new  invasion  upon  Otho  the  Great, 
advanced  as  far  as  Augsburg,  to  which  they  laid  siege  ;  but  Otho,  in  a 
battle  which  he  fought  with  them  in  the  vicinity  of  that  city,  (955,) 
routed  them  with  such  slaughter  that  they  never  dared  to  return. 

2  On  this  oath,  which  was  taken  in  963,  the  emperors  of  Germany  founded 
the  title  by  which  they  claimed  the  right  to  confirm,  or  to  nominate 
and  depose  the  popes.  Lawyers  generally  allege  the  famous  decree 
of  Leo  VHL,  published  964,  as  establishing  the  rights  of  the  emperors 
over  Rome  and  the  popes.  But  the  authenticity  of  this  decree  has 
been  attacked  by  the  ablest  critics,  and  defended  by  others.  It  would 
appear  that  there  is  no  necessity  for  this  to  justify  these  rights.  Otho, 
after  having  conquered  Italy  and  received  the  submission  of  the  Romans 
and  the  Pope,  could  easily  claim  for  himself  and  his  successors  the 
same  rights  of  superiority  which  the  Greek  and  Frank  emperors  had 
enjoyed  before  him. 

3  He  was  the  duke  of  Lower  Lorrain,  and  had  obtained  that  dukedom 
from  Otho  II.  in  977.  He  transmitted  it  to  his  son  Otho,  who  was  the 
last  prince  of  the  Carlovingian  line,  and  died  in  1006, 

4  The  principalities  of  Benevento,  Salerno,  and  Capua,  were  governed 
by  Lombard  princes,  who  held  of  the  German  emperors.  The  duke- 
doms of  Naples,  Gaeta,  Amalfi,  and  part  of  Apulia  and  Calabria,  were 
dependent  on  the  eastern  emperors  ;  while  the  Arabs,  masters  of  the 
greater  part  of  Sicily  possessed  also  Bari  and  Tarento  in  Apulia. 

5  From  this  treaty  is  derived  the  right  o^  vassalage,  which  the  popes  have 
exercised  till  the  present  time,  over  the  kingdom  of  Naples. 

6  The  first  invasion  of  the  Normeuis  in  Sicily  was  in  1060.    Palermo,  th« 


880  NOTESi. 

capital,  fell  under  their  power  in  1072,  and  in  lOSO  they  conquered  fbs 
whore  island. 

7  The  first  seeds  of  Christianity  were  planted  in  Denmark  and  Sweden'. 
by  St.  Ansgar,  whom  Louis  the  Gentle  created,  in  834,  first  arciibishop 
of  Hamburg,  and  metropolitan  of  the  North.  But  the  progress  oJ 
Christianity  was  extremely  slow  in  those  semi-barbarous  countries-- 
The  first  annalist  of  the  North  was  an  Icelander  named  Are  Froae. 
who  flourished  about  the  beginning  of  the  11th  century.  The  moe"! 
eminent  historian  of  Denmark,  was  a  monk  named  Swend  Aagesoa. 
who  digested,  about  1187,  an  abridgement  of  the  history  of  that  king- 
dom. He  was  followed  by  Saxo  the  grammarian,  whose  history  of 
Denmark,  written  in  beautiful  Latin,  is  full  of  fables  in  the  times  preced- 
ing the  12th  century.  Norway  had  for  its  first  annalist  a  monk  named 
Theodoric,  who  wrote  about  11  GO.  As  to  Sweden,  it  has  no  national 
historian  anterior  to  the  Chronicles  in  Verse,  the  first  anonymous  editor 
of  which  lived  in  the  tim-e  of  King  Magnus  Smeck,  aboait  the  middle 
of  the  14th  century. 

8  Olaus  sent,  in  996  and  1000,  missionaries  int»  Iceland,  who  succeeded 
in  making  the  whole  country  adopt  Christianity.  An  Icelandic  fugitive, 
named  Eric  le  Roux,  discovered  Greenland,  and  formed  the  first  settle- 
ments there,  about  the  year,  982.  His  son,  Lief,  embraced  Christianity 
during  his  sojourn  in  Norway.  With  the  aid  of  some  ecclesiastic-s 
whom  King  Olaus  gave  him,  he  returned  in  1000  to  Greenland,  and 
there  converted  his  father  and  his  fellow-countrymen.  The  knowledge 
of  the  first  Norwegian  colonies  of  Greenland,  was  lost  about  the  begin- 
ning of  the  fifteenth  century.  The  southern  and  western  districts  oi 
it  were  again  discovered  about  1576  ;  but  it  was  not  till  1721  that  the 
Danes  formed  new  settlements  there. 

9  The  Polabes  inhabited  the  duchy  of  Lauenhurg,  the  principality  of  Rat- 
zenburg,  and  the  province  of  Schwerin.  The  Wagrians  were  settled 
beyond  the  Bille  in  the  Wagria,  in  the  principality  of  Eutin,  and  a  part 
of  Holstein. 

.  0  Henry,  Duke  ai  Saxony,  Conrad,  Duke  of  Zahringen,  and  Albert, 
Margrave  of  the  North,  headed  an  army  of  these  crusaders  against  the 
Slavi  in  1147. 

11  The  right  of  hereditary  succession  in  the  eldest  son  of  every  ducal 
family,  was  not  introduced  into  Bohemia  till  1055,  This  was  the  ancient 
usage  in  Sweden,  Denmark,  Poland,  Russia,  and  Hungary. 

12  Na  writer  of  this  nation  is  known  anterior  to  the  thirteenth  century. 
The  most  ancient  is  Vincent  Kadlubeck.  bishop  of  Cracow,  who  died 
1223.     He  wrote  Historia  Polonia,  first  published  in  1612. 

13  This  crown,  singularly  revered  in  Hungary,  contains  Greek  ornaments 
and  inscriptions,  which  give  us  to  understand  that  it  was  manufactured 
at  Constantinople.  There  is  a  probability  that  it  was  furnished  by  the 
Empress  Theophania,  mother  of  Otho  III.,  to  Pope  Sylvester  II.,  whom 
she  had  lately  raised  to  the  pontificate. 

14  The  Greeks  upbraided  the  Latins  with  fasting  on  Saturdays — permission 
to  eat  cheese,  butter,  and  milk,  during  the  first  week  of  lent — the  cell- 
bacy  of  their  priests — the  repetition  of  the  unction,  of  baptism  in  confir- 
mation— the  corrupting  of  the  confession  of  faith — the  use  of  unleavened 
bread  in  the  eucharist — permission  to  eat  the  blood  of  animals  strangled 
— and  the  prohibition  against  the  priests  wearing  their  beards. 

15  The  difference  of  rank  and  pre-eminence  of  these  two  patriarchs,  be- 
came one  of  the  principal  subjects  of  dispute  between  the  two  churches. 
There  was  a  warm  debate  as  to  the  title  of  Ecumenical  Patriarch,  ar 


NOTES.  381 

universal  bishop,  which  the  patriarchs  of  Constantinople  had  assumed 
since  the  time  of  the  patriarch  John  I{.  in  618.  The  Roman  pontiffs, 
Pelagius  IL  and  Gregory  I.,  haughtily  condemned  that  title  as  proud 
and  extravagant.  They  even  went  so  far  as  to  interdict  all  commimion 
with  the  patriarchs  of  Constantinople ;  and  Gregory  L,  wishing  to  give 
these  patriarchs  an  example  of  Christian  humility,  in  opposition  to  this 
lofty  title  of  Universal  Bishop,  adopted  that  of  Servant  of  the  servants 
of  God. 

16  The  Bulgarians,  newly  converted  to  Christianity  by  Greek  and  Latin 
missionaries,  had  priests  and  bishops  of  both  churches ;  and  each  pon- 
tiff  claimed  the  sole  jurisdiction  over  that  province.  This  affair  having 
been  referred  by  the  Bulgarians  themselves  to  the  judgment  of  the 
Greek  Emperor,  he  decided  in  favor  of  the  See  of  Constantinople.  In 
conse<fhence  of  this  decision,  the  Latin  bishops  and  priests  were  expelled 
from  Bulgaria,  and  replaced  by  the  Greeks  in  670. 

n  This  terrible  fire,  reckoned  among  their  state  secrets,  was  exploded 
from  tubes  of  copper,  or  thrown  with  cross-bows  and  machines  for  the 
purpose.  Fire-ships  were  likewise  filled  with  them,  which  they  des- 
patched among  the  enemies'  ships  to  burn  them.  These  could  not  be 
extinguished  by  water,  or  any  ether  way  than  by  the  help  of  vinegar  or 
sand. 

IS  The  name  of  Tartar,  in  the  sense  in  which  it  is  commonly  taken,  ap 
pears  to  be  of  a  Chinese  origin.  The  Chinese  pronounce  it  Tha-tha , 
and  designate,  by  this  name,  all  the  nations  that  dwell  north  of  the 
great  wall. 

19  The  first  that  employed  this  military  guard  was  the  Caliph  Montassem, 
who  succeed-ed  to  the  caliphate  in  833  or  218  of  the  Hegira. 

20  Sultan  or  Soltkan,  is  a  common  name  in  the  Chaldean  and  Arabic  laia- 
guages,  to  designate  a  sovereign,  ruler,  king,  or  master. 

21  Syria  was  conquered  by  the  Seljukides,  betw-een  1074  and  1085.  They 
-were  masters  of  Palestine  since  1075,  which  they  had  conquered  from 

the  Fatimite  caliphs  of  Egypt. 

22  The  most  powerful  of  these  Emirs  dared  not  assume  the  title  of  Sultan, 
but  were  content  v.ith  that  of  Atabek^  which  signifies  iu  the  Turkish 
language,  Father  of  the  prince^ 

NOTES  TO  CHAPTER  V.— Period  IV. 

1  He  was  the  first  of  the  Roman  Pontiffs  that  assumed  the  title  of  Pope, 
(Papa,)  to  the  exclusion  of  the  other  bishops  and  prelates  who  had  for- 
merly made  use  of  that  denomination. 

S  Pope  Urban  II.,  one  of  the  immediate  successors  of  Gregory  VII.,  went 
so  far  as  to  recommend  to  all  secular  princes,  that  they  should  make 
slaves  of  such  of  the  priest's  wives  as  lived  with  their  husbands  after 
they  had  received  holy  orders.  In  Denmark  and  Sweden,  the  celi. 
bacy  of  the  clergy  was  not  introduced  till  near  the  middle  of  the  IStii 
century. 

3  Pope  Nicholas  I.  and  Adrian  II.,  in  the  9th  century,  and  John  IV.  and 
Gregory  V.,  about  the  end  of  the  10th,  appealed  to  the  False  Decretals 
in  their  disputes  with  the  kings  of  France,  on  the  subject  of  supremacy 
and  legislative  power  over  the  whole  church. 

4  This  house  which  succeeded  the  Salic  dynasty,  occupied  the  throne  of 
the  empire  Irom  1138  to  1254. 

5  Gregory  VII.  in  1080,  contirmed  the  election  of  the  Anti-Emperor  Ro- 
dolph.     Innocent  III.,  claimed  the  right  to   arbitrate  in  the  disputes 


3^2  NOTES. 

between  Philip  of  Swabia  and  Otho  of  Brunswick  (Il£?8,)  on  tlic  subject 
of  their  election.  The  contested  election  of  Richard  de  Cornwall  and 
Alphortso  of  Castille  to  the  throne  of  Spain.,  was  submitted  to  the  juds- 
inent  of  the  Pope. 

6  The  Popes  derived  their  claims  to  these  estates,  from  a  donation  of 
them,  which  the  Countess  had  made  in  1077,  to  Pope  Gregory  VIL» 
and  which  she  renewed  in  1102  to  Pascal  IL 

7  The  Order  of  St.  Anthony  was  founded  about  1095  ;  and  that  of  Ghar- 
treux  was  founded  in  1080 — 86,  by  Bruno  of  Cologne  •  and  that  of 
Grandmont,  by  Stephen  de  Thiers,  a  native  of  Auvergne. 

8  The  Arabs  took  possession  of  Palestine  under  the  Caliph  Omar,  a.  d. 
657.     It  fell  into  the  hands  of  the  Fatimite  Caliphs  of  Egypt,  a.  d.  968 

9-10  There  is  an  amusing  description  of  the  crusaders  in  the^^  Chronicle 
of  Conradus  Urspergensis,  and  the  sensation  which  their  first  appear- 
ance made  in  Germany. 

11  One  of  these  first  divisions  was  conducted  by  Peter  the  Hermit  in 
person.  A  contemporary  author  gives  the  following  description  of 
that  ghostly  general.  "  His  appearance  was  rude  in  the  extreme,  of 
a  short  stature  but  of  a  most  fervid  zeal.  His  face  was  meagre,  hi» 
feet  bare,  and  his  dress  o-f  the  meanest  and  the  most  squalid  sort.  Oi> 
his  journey,  and  wherever  he  went,  he  used  neither  horse,  mare, 
nor  mule  ;  but  only  a  vehicle  drawn  by  asses."  Peter  intrusted  a  part 
of  his  army  to  a  French  gentleman  named  Walter  the  Pennyless,  wha 
marched  before  him.  A  numerous  body  commanded  by  a  German 
priest  followed  him.  Nearly  the  whole  of  them  perished  to  the  amount 
of  200,000  men. 

12  The  republic  of  Venice  having  refused,  in  spite  of  the  thundering 
bulls  launched  against  them,  to  surrender  up  the  city  of  Ferrara,  Pope 
Clemont  IV.  published  a  crusade  against  them  1309,  and  thus  compelled 
them  to  sue  for  peace. 

13  There  were  properly  no  armorial  bearings  befare  the  12th  century.  We 
do  not  meet  with  the  Fleurs-de-lis  on  the  crown  or  the  robe  of  the  French 
kings,  until  the  time  of  Louis  VII.,  a.  d.  1164. 

14  The  crusades  were  the  means  of  spreading  leprosy  in  Europe,  as  also 
the  plague,  which  in  1347  and  the  follov/ing  years  made  dreadful  havoc. 
From  Italy  it  spread  over  all  Europe,  and  occasioned  a  violent  perse, 
cution  against  the  Jews^. 

15  For  these,  see  the  accounts  of  Spain,  Italy,  Portugal. 

16  This  is  the  common  opinion  as  to  the  origin  of  the  Hanseatic  League, 
although  Sartorius  disputes  it.  The  word  Hanse,  in  Low  German, 
means  any  association  or  corporation.  We  find  this  word  used,  for  the 
first  time,  in  a  letter  which  Edward  II.  of  England  wrote  in  1315,  to 
the  King  of  France,  in  favor  of  the  Germanic  merchants. 

17  The  parliament  of  1342  is  generally  cited  as  the  first  in  which  we  find 
the  division  into  two  houses, 

18  Hence  the  names  of  Pfaghlhurger  and  Ussburger,  i.  e.  burgess  withnj 
the  precincts,  and  without  the  city. 

19  It  should  be  observed,  however,  that  the  Roman  Law,  and  especially 
the  Theodosian  Code,  still  remained  in  Italy  to  a  certain  extent,  ever* 
in  the  midst  of  the  darkness  that  covered  Europe  prior  to  the  12th 
century. 

20  In  the  Truce  of  God,  challenges  or  duels  we?fi  prohibited  on  Thurs- 
days, Fridays,  Saturdays,  and  Sundays,  under  pain  of  excommunica- 
tion. They  were  also  forbidden  between  Septuagessima  Sunday  aad 
Easter  Week,  and  between  Advent  Simday  and  Epiphany. 


NOTES.  38& 

il  Hugolmus,  a  famous  lawyer,  iinder  Frederic  I.  is  generally  regarded 
as  the  first  that  digested  the  Two  Books  of  Fiefs,  at  the  end  of  the 
Corpus  Juris. 

22  Several  other  universities  were  founded  in  the  following  century  : — 
•such  as  that  of  Prague,  in  1347  ;  Vienna,  in  1365  ;  Heidelburg,  in  1386; 

Cologne,  in  1389  ;  Erfurt,  in  1389,  &,c. 

23  This  Confederation  of  the  Rhine  was  originally  concluded  between  the 
c'ties  of  Mayence,  Cologne,  Worms,  Spire,  Strasburg,  and  Berlin,  for 
the  protection  of  their  commerce  on  the  Rhinp,. 

24  Those  grand  officers  were  seven  in  number,  although  formerly  other 
princes  were  admitted  to  these  elections, 

25  There  appears  some  reason  to  doubt  this  statement  of  Dandolo,  tho 
historian  of  Venice. 

20  After  the  downfall  of  the  Roman  empire  in  he  5th  century,  Corsica 
was  conquered  in  turn  by  the  Vandals,  Gre(  ks,  Franks,  and  Arabs. 
The  latter  settled  there  in  the  9th  century,  a  ad  were  expelled  in  the 
11th.  Sardinia  experienced  nearly  the  same  revolution  as  Corsica.  It 
fell  successively  into  the  hands  of  the  Vandals,  Greeks,  Arabs,  Geno- 
ese, and  Pistms.  Pope  Boniface  VIII.  vested  the  King  of  Arragon  in 
Sardinia  in  1297,  as  his  vassal  and  tributary,  who  expelled  the  Pisans 
in  1324—26. 

27  The  famous  Castilian  hero  Don  Rodrigo  Diaz  de  Vivar,  surnamed  the 
Cid,  had  already  seized  the  kingdom  of  Valencia,  about  the  end  of  the 
11th  century;  but  the  Arabs  took  possession  of  it  after  his  death  1099, 

28  De  Guignes  fixes  the  entire  destruction  of  the  Almohades  in  the  year 
1296. 

29  After  the  defeat  of  the  Mahometans,  Alfonso  having  assembled  the 
bishops,  declared  on  his  oath  that  Jesus  Christ  appeared  to  him  on  the 
evening  before  the  battle,  promised  him  certain  victory,  and  ordered 
him  to  be  proclaimed  king  of  the  field  of  battle,  and  to  take  for  his 
arms  the  five  wounds  inflicted  on  his  body,  and  the  thirty  pieces  of  silver 
for  which  he  was  sold  to  the  Jews. 

30  The  first  six  of  these  were  the  ancient  lay  peers  of  the  crown.  They 
were  established  in  the  reigns  oi  Louis  VII.  and  IX.,  as  well  as  six 
ecclesiasiical  peers, 

31  The  states  of  Germany,  m  order  to  preserve  the  feudal  system,  passed 
a  law,  which  forbade  the  princes  to  leave  the  grand  fiefs  of  the  empire 
vacant  more  than  a  year. 

32  By  the  definitive  peace  concluded  at  Paris,  in  1259,  between  Louis  IX., 
and  Henry  III.,  Normandy,  Lorraine,  Mame  Anjou,  and  Poitou,  were 
ceded  to  France,  who  then  surrendered  to  England  Limousin,  Peri- 
gord,  Quercy,  &c.,  on  condition  of  doing  fealty  and  homage  to  the 
kings  of  France,  and  to  be  held  under  the  title  of  the  Dube  of  Aqui- 
taine  iuid  peer  of  France. 

33  The  first  origin  of  the  inquisition  may  be  dated  from  a  commission  of 
inquisitors  in  1212,  which  Innocent  III.  established  at  Toulouce  against 
the  Albigenses.  Gregory  IX.  intrusted  the  inquisition  to  the  Domini, 
cans,  who  erected  it  into  an  ordinary  tribunal,  before  which  they  cited 
not  only  those  suspected  of  heresy,  but  all  who  were  accused  of  sor- 
cery, magic,  witchcraft,  Judaism,  &c. 

34  Dominico,  sub-prior  of  the  church  of  Osma  in  Spain,  conjointly  v?ith 
Diego  d'Azebez,  the  bishop  of  that  church,  imdertook,  in  1206,  the  mission 
against  the  heretics  in  Languedoc.  Innocent  VIII.  in  1208,  established 
a  perpetual  commission  of  preachers  for  that  country,  of  which  Dominico 
was  declared  chief.    Hence  the  origin  of  the  order  of  Preaching  Friari?. 


S84  NOTES. 

85  The  Irish  were  converted  to  Christianity  in  the  5th  century.  St.  Patrick, 
was  their  first  apostle  ;  he  founded  the  archbishopric  of  Armagh  in  472. 
The  supremacy  of  the  Pope  was  not  acknowledged  in  that  island  till  the 
council  of  Drogheda,  1152,  when  the  Pope's  pallium,  and  the  celibacv 
of  the  priests,  were  introduced. 

36  In  Denmark,  the  throne  was  elective  in  the  reigning  family.  It  was 
equally  so  in  Norway,  where,  by  a  strange  custom,  natural  sons  were 
admitted  to  the  crown,  and  allowed  the  privilege  of  attesting  their 
descent  from  the  royal  tine  by  the  ordeal  of  fire. 

37  The  power  of  the  clergy  in  the  North  was  considerably  increased  by 
the  introduction  of  Metropolitans.  The  archbishopric  of  Lunden  was 
erected  in  1152,  and  that  of  Upsal  in  1163. 

38  The  introduction  of  tithes  met  with  great  opposition  in  all  the  North  ; 
nor  were  they  generally  received  till  near  the  end  of  the  13th  century. 
Canute  IV,  was  put  to  death  in  Denmark,  principally  for  having  attempt- 
ed to  introduce  tithes. 

39  Except  Sigurd  I.,  King  of  Norway,  who  undertook  a  crusade  to  ihe 
Holy  Land,  1107,  at  the  head  of  an  army  of  10,000  men,  and  a  fleet 
of  60  sail. 

40  Tacitus,  and  the  writers  of  the  middle  ages,  before  the  10th  century, 
seem  to  have  included  the  Prussians,  and  the  people  inhabiting  the 
coasts  of  the  Baltic  eastward  of  the  Vistula,  under  the  name  of  Esiho- 
nians. 

41  It  is  alleged  this  city  took  its  name  from  Ottokar  II.,  King  of  Bohe- 
mia,  who  headed  an  army  of  crusaders,  and  encouraged  the  building 
of  it. 

42  In  the  Mogul  language,  Zin  or  Tgin,  signifies  Great,  and  Kis,  very  : 
so  that  the  word  means  Most  Great  IC  m  or  Emperor.  According  to 
others  who  quote  the  constant  tradition  of  the  Moguls,  this  new  name 
was  taken  from  the  cry  of  an  extraordinary  and  divine  bird,  which  sat 
on  the  tree  during  the  assembly  in  question,  and  uttered  the  word 
Tschingkis.  This  name  was  adopted  as  a  special  and  favorable  augury 
from  heaven,  and  applied  to  the  new  conqueror. 

43  The  Igours  were  dependent  on  this  latter  empire,  a  Turkish  people  to 
the  north-west  of  China.  It  is  alleged  that  they  cultivated  the  arts  and 
sciences  ;  and  communicated  letters  and  the  alphabet  to  the  other 
Turkish  and  Mogul  tribes. 

44  the  former  of  these  events  took  place  in  1279,  and  the  latter  in  1243. 
The  Caliphs  of  Bagdad  were  annihilated  by  the  Moguls,  under  the  reign 
of  Mangou  Khan,  a.  d.  1258. 

45  It  is  related  that  the  Emperor  Frederic  II.,  when  summoned  by  the 
Great  Khan  to  submit,  and  offered  an  office  of  high  trust  at  his  court, 
replied  to  his  singular  message  by  way  of  pleasantry,  that  he  knew 
enough  of  fowling  to  qualify  him  for  grand  falconer. 

46  The  dynasty  of  the  Moguls  in  Persia  ended  in  1410  ;  that  of  the  Zagatai 
fell  into  the  hands  of  the  usurpers  in  the  14th  century.  This  dynasty 
produced  the  famous  Timour. 

47  Baton  Khan  was  in  the  habit  of  ascending  the  Wolga,  with  his  whole 
tribe,  from  January  till  August,  when  he  began  to  descend  that  river 
in  his  way  to  the  south. 

48  Horde,  in  the  Chinese  or  Tartar  language,  means  a  tent  or  dwelling, 
place. 

49  These  tribes  dwelt  to  the  north  of  the  Caspian  Sea,  between  the  Jaik, 
the  Wolga,  and  the  Tanais. 

50  Tb3  Moguls  of  Kipzac,  who  ruled  over  Russia,  are  known  rather  by 


NOTES.  385 

the  name  of  Tartars  than  Moguls,  as  they  adopted  by  degrees,  the  Ian. 
guage  and  manners  of  the  Tartars  among  whom  they  lived. 

51  An  author  who  wrote  in  the  twelfth  century,  remarks,  that  the  Hun- 
garians still  lived  in  tents,  in  summer  and  autumn  ;  the  few  bouses  in 
ihat  kingdom  were  built  of  wood  or  of  stone  ;  that  the  grandees,  when 
they  went  to  court,  brought  their  seats  or  chairs  with  them  ;  and  that 
the  same  thing  was  practised  by  those  who  wentio  visit  their  neigh, 
bors  in  winter. 

52  The  invasion  of  Dalmatia  became  a  source  of  troubles  and  wars  be- 
tween the  kings  of  Hungary  and  the  republic  of  Vienna ;  and  it  was 
not  till  the  fifteenth  century  that  the  Venetians  succeeded  in  getting 
possession  of  the  maritime  towns  of  Dalmatia. 

53  The  Cumans  established  one  of  their  colonies  in  a  part  of  ancient 
Dacia,  now  Moldavia  and  Wallachia,  which  took  from  them  the  name 
of  Cumania. 

54  Baldwin  was  succeeded  by  his  brother  Henry  ;  and  he  by  his  brother- 
in-law,  Pierre  de  Courtenay,  grandson  of  Louis  VI.  of  France.  That 
prince  left  two  sons,  Robert  and  Baldwin,  who  both  reigned  at  Con- 
stantinople, and  were  the  last  of  the  Latin  emperors. 

55  They  took  the  name  of  Baharites,  which  in  Arabic  signifies  maritimes 
or  dwellers  near  the  sea. 

NOTES  TO  CHAPTER  VL— Period  V. 

1  This  jubilee,  which,  according  to  the  bull  of  Boniface  VHL,  was  to 
be  celebrated  only  once  in  a  hundred  years,  was  reduced  to  fifty  by 
Clement  VL,  to  thirty  by  Urban  VL,  and  twenty-five  by  Paul  H.,  and 
Sextus IV.  ,A 

2  Martin  V.,  Nicholas  V.,  and  Calixtus  H.,  gave  to  the  Portuguese  all  the 
territories  which  they  might  discover,  from  the  Canaries  to  the  Indies. 
Adrian  IV.,  who  adjudged  Ireland  to  Henry  II.  in  1155,  had  claimed 
that  all  islands  in  which  Christianitv  was  introduced,  should  belong  to 
St.  Peter. 

i  The  kings  of  France  maintained  the  exeroise  of  that  right  in  spite  of 
the  efforts  which  the  court  of  Rome  made  to  deprive  them  of  it. 

4  The  King  even  sent  to  Italy  the  Chevalier  William  Nogart  with  a  body 
of  troops,  who  surprised  the  Pope  at  Anagni,  made  him  prisoner,  and 
pillaged  his  treasures,  as  well  as  those  of  the  cardinals  in  his  suit. 

5  If  we  can  believe  an  Arabic  author  from  Mecca,  of  the  thirteenth  cen. 
tury,  paper,  of  cotton  most  probably,  was  invented  at  Mecca  by  one 
Joseph  Amru,  about  the  year  706.  According  to  others,  the  Arabs 
found  an  excellent  paper  manufactory  at  Samarcand,  when  they  con. 
quered  that  country  in  704.  The  invention  of  paper  among  the  Chinese 
is  very  ancient. 

6  M.  de  Mechel  mentions  three  pictures  in  the  gallery  of  Vienna,  one 
of  the  year  1297,  and  the  other  two  of  1357,  as  having  been  painted  in 
oil  colors  on  wood. 

7  The  first  cards  were  painted  and  designed,  which  rendered  them  verj' 
dear.  Great  variety  of  cards  are  found  among  different  nations.  Piquet 
became  the  national  game  of  the  French,  taroc  of  the  Italians ;  the 
Spaniards  invented  ombre  and  quadrille,  and  the  Germans  lansquenet. 

3  One  of  the  oldest  of  these  folios  is  that  found  in  the  library  of  Buxheim, 
near  Meningen.  It  represents  the  image  of  St.  Christopher  illumed, 
with  a  legend,  dated  1423.  Printing,  by  blocks  of  wood,  was  practised 
m  Cluna  since  the  ven*-  950 

VOL.  II,  'VA 


386  NOTES. 

9  Gutenberg,  who  still  kept  his  art  a  secret,  on  the  death  of  Drizhen, 
sent  diflerent  persons  into  his  house,  and  charged  them  to  unscrew  the 
press,  and  take  it  to  pieces,  that  no  one  might  discover  how  or  in  what 
he  was  employed. 

10  Schoeflin  dates  the  uavention  of  the  font  about  the  year  1452.  The 
honor  of  it  is  commonly  ascribed  to  Peter  Schceffer,  the  companion  of 
Faust. 

11  In  a  deed  made  by  Gutenburg  and  his  brother  in  1459,  he  took  a  for- 
mal  engagement  to  give  to  the  library  of  the  convent  of  St.  Claire,  a; 
Mayence,  the  books  which  he  had  already  printed,  or  might  print ; 
which  proves  that  Gutenburg  had  printed  books  long  before  1459.  ana 
that  he  still  intended  to  print. 

12  According  to  Casiri,  there  can  be  no  doubt  as  to  the  existence  of  can 
non  among  the  Moors  in  the  years  1342 — 44.  The  first  undoubted 
proof  of  the  employment  of  cannon  in  France,  is  of  the  year  1345. 
The  Genoese,  it  is  alleged,  employed  mines  for  the  first  time  at  the 
siege  of  Seranessa,  against  the  Florentines,  in  1487  ;  and  the  Spaniards 
against  the  French  at  the  siege  of  the  castle  of  Oeuf,  in  1503. 

13  The  first  cannons  were  constructed  of  wood,  iron,  or  lead.  Gustavus 
Adolphus  used  cannons  made  of  leather.  They  could  not  support  near 
the  quantity  of  powder  of  those  in  modem  times. 

14  Guiot  de  Provins,  who  wrote  a  satirical  poem  called  the  Bible,  about 
the  end  of  the  12th  century,  speaks  most  distinctly  of  the  mariner's 
compass,  which  was  used  in  his  time  in  navigation. 

15  The  herring  fisheries  on  the  coast  of  Scania,  in  the  14th  and  15th  cen. 
turies,  proved  a  mine  of  wealth  for  the  Hanseatic  trade  ;  so  much  the 
more  gainful,  as  all  Europe  then  observed  lent. 

16  William  Tell  is  commonly  regarded  as  the  first  founder  of  the  Swiss 
liberty, 

17  The  Grand  Duke  Michael  Joroslawitz  was  executed  by  the  Horde  in 
1318.  Demetrius  Michaelovitz  met  with  the  same  fate  in  1326. — 
The  Russian  princes,  on  going  to  an  audience  with  the  Khan,  were 
obliged  to  walk  between  two  fires  to  purify  themselves  and  the  presents 
which  they  brought.  They  were  even  compelled  to  do  reverence  to 
an  image  which  was  placed  at  the  entrance  of  the  Khan's  tent. 

18  The  first  mention  which  the  annals  of  Nestor  make  of  the  Livonians, 
and  their  wars  with  the  Russians,  is  about  the  year  1040. 

19  Various  contracts  were  made  before  that  sale  was  accomplished.  The 
first  was  in  1341,  and  the  price  was  13,000  marks  of  silver.  In  1346, 
the  Margrave  Louis  sold  his  rights  over  Esthonia  to  the  Teutonic  Order 
for  6000  marks. 

20  Livonia  did  not  belong  exclusively  to  the  Teutonic  Order  at  this  time. 
The  archbishop  of  Riga  was  independent,  and  master  of  the  city  where 
he  resided. 

21  Before  Uladislaus,  there  were  only  some  of  the  sovereigns  of  Poland 
invested  with  the  royal  dignity  ;  and  the  tradition  which  carries  back 
the  uninterrupted  succession  of  the  Polish  kings  to  Bolislaus,  in  the 
year  1000,  is  contrary  to  the  evidence  of  history. 

22  The  conversion  of  the  Lithuanians  to  Christianity  was  resolved  on  in  a 
general  assembly  of  the  nation  held  in  1387.  It  consisted  simply  of 
the  ceremony  of  baptism.  The  Polish  priests  who  were  employed  on 
this  mission,  being  ignorant  of  the  Lithuanian  language.  King  Jagellon 
became  himself  a  preacher.  One  custom  which  he  practised,  succeeded 
better  than  all  the  force  of  reasoning  or  argument.  The  Lithuanians, 
lill  thpii.  ligri   used    only  clothes   of  skins   or  'inen      The  Kingr  caused 


NOTES.  HBl 

woollen  dresses,  of  which  he  had  ordered  a  large  quantity  to  be  imported 
from  Poland,  to  be  distributed  to  all  those  who  were  baptized.  Thou 
sands  of  the  Lithuanians  then  flocked  to  the  administration  of  that  rita 
The  Samogitians  embraced  Christianity  about  the  13th  century. 

23  The  Wallachians,  as  their  language  proves,  are  a  mixture  of  the  descend- 
ants of  the  Roman  colonies  of  ancient  Dacia,  with  the  Slavians  ana 
Goths.     They  adhered  to  the  Greek  church  in  the  ninth  century. 

24  Philip  Callimacus,  the  historian  of  Uladislaus,  was  descended  of  an 
illustrious  family  in  Tuscany,  and  one  of  those  fine  geniuses  which 
Italy  produced  in  the  fifteenth  century.  Being  persecuted  at  Rome,  he 
retired  to  Poland  to  Gasimir  IV.,  who  intrusted  him  with  the  education 
of  his  children,  and  made  him  his  secretary. 

25  The  conquest  of  Indostan  by  Timour  is  fixed  to  the  years  1398,  1399. 
His  dearest  trophies  were  huge  towers,  formed  of  the  heads  which  he 
had  cut  from  his  enemies.  He  raised  120  of  these  after  the  taking  of 
Bagdad  in  1401. 

26  In  the  short  space  of  six  or  seven  hours,  the  Turks  had  cleared  the 
city  entirely  of  all  its  inhabitants. 

NOTES  TO  CHAPTER  VII.— Period  VI. 

1  Las  Casas  is  generally  reproactied  for  having  advised  the  employing  of 
African  slaves  in  the  Antilles,  instead  of  the  natives,  while  he  was 
zealously  supporting  the  liberty  of  the  Americans  ;  and  that  it  was  by 
his  advice  that  Charles  V.,  in  1517,  authorised  the  Belgian  merchants 
to  import  14,000  Africans  into  these  islands,  which  gave  rise  to  the  treaty 
on  the  slave  trade. 

2  The  kings  of  Portugal  had  already  obtained  similar  commissions  for 
their  discoveries  in  the  east,  from  Pope  Nicholas  V.,  Calixtus  III.,  and 
Sextus  IV. 

3  The  Philippine  Isles,  discovered  by  Magellan  in  1521,  were  occupied 
by  the  Spaniards  in  1564.  After  several  fruitless  attempts  to  find  a 
north-east  or  north-west  passage,  the  English  doubled  the  Cape  of  Good 
Hope  before  the  end  of  the  16th  century. 

4  Magellan,  in  his  voyage,  discovered  anew  route  to  India  by  the  straits, 
to  which  he  gave  his  namp.  The  Moluccas  and  the  Philippines  were 
then  visited  by  him.  He  was  killed  in  the  Isle  of  Matan,  one  of  the 
Philip.nnes,  April  27,  1521. 

5  Henry  IV.  conceived  the  project,  and  concerted  with  Elizabeth  of 
England,  for  securing  the  equilibrium  and  the  peace  of  the  continent, 
by  humbling  Austia. 

6  The  assassin  was  calkd  Balthazar  Gerardi.  He  is  said  to  have  bought 
the  pistols,  with  which  he  committed  the  deed,  with  the  money  which 
the  prince  had  given  him  a  few  days  before. 

7  The  first  alliance  of  the  Swiss  with  France  was  in  1453.  It  was 
renewed  in  1474  and  1480,  In  virtue  of  this  latter  treaty,  the  Swiss 
engaged  to  furnish  for  that  prince  a  body  of  6000  auxiliaries,  the  first 
regular  Sa'Iss  troops  that  had  been  received  into  the  service  of  France, 
with  consent  of  the  confederation. 

8  That  war  was  terminated  in  1603,  a  little  before  the  death  of  Elizabeth. 

NOTES  TO  CHAPTER  VIII.— Period  VII 

1  The  first  of  these  medals  represented  the  United  Provinces  under  the 
figure  of  a  woman  trampling  Discord,  with  an  inscription  a  little  hauglity, 


BOS'  NOTES. 

but  by  no  means  outrageous  for  France.  The  other  medal  was  more 
piquant ;  it  offered  the  crown  of  France  to  M.  Van  Beuningen,  the 
ambassador  of  Holland,  under  the  figure  of  Joshua,  who  commanded 
the  sun  to  stand  still. 

2  This  bull,  the  source  of  many  theological  disputes,  was  issued  in  1713, 
in  which  Clement  XI.  condemned  a  hundred  and  one  propositions, 
extracted  from  the  New  Testament,  as  false,  and  infected  with  the 
errors  of  Jansenism. 

3  In  1713.  In  this  same  year  was  concluded  the  famous  treaty  of  Meth- 
ven,  by  which  Portugal  engaged  to  receive  English  woollen  cloths,  on 
condition  that  England  would  admit  the  wines  of  Portugal  at  one-third 
less  duty  than  those  of  France. 

4  The  national  liberty  gained  under  Charles  II.  by  the  famous  Habeas 
Corpus  Act,  passed  in  1679. 

NOTES  TO  CHAPTER  IX.— Period  VIII. 

1  Among  the  means  which  the  regent  employed  for  clearing  off  the 
debts  of  the  state,  which  amounted  to  three  millions,  one  was  the 
famous  scheme  of  Law,  a  Scotchman,  and  the  establishment  of  a 
bank,  v/hich  completely  failed  after  having  great  success,  and  ruined  a 
number  of  families. 

2  Alberoni,  a  man  of  vast  and  enterprising  genius,  was  at  first  only  a 
simple  priest  in  a  village  near  Parma.  He  insinuated  himself  into  the 
favor  of  the  Duke  of  Vendome,  when  he  commanded  the  French  army 
in  Italy.  The  Duke  took  him  to  Spain,  and  recommended  him  to  the 
Princess  des  Ursius  who  was  then  all  powerful  at  the  court  of  Philip  V. 
There  he  was  elevated  to  the  rank  of  cardinal  and  prime  minister. 

3  This  famous  adventurer  was  descended  of  a  noble  family  in  the  pro- 
vince of  Groningen.  In  1715,  he  was  appointed  ambassador  for  Hoi- 
land  at  the  court  of  Madrid.  There  he  insinuated  himself  into  favor 
with  Philip  v.,  who  sent  him,  in  1724,  to  the  court  of  Vienna,  to  treat 
with  the  Emperor  Charles  V.  On  his  return,  he  was  raised  to  the 
rank  of  duke  and  prime  minister  of  Spain.  Being  disgraced  for  his 
imprudences,  he  was  imprisoned  in  the  Castle  of  Segovia,  whence  he 
made  his  escape  in  1728,  and  after  wandering  over  several  countries, 
he  passed  to  Morocco,  where  it  is  alleged  he  became  a  Mahometan,  as 
he  turned  Catholic  at  Madrid.  Being  obliged  to  quit  that  new  retreat 
he  repaired  to  Tetuan,  where  he  died. 

4  The  trade  which  the  E"nglish  carried  on  in  Spanish  America,  in  virtue 
of  the  Assienio,  having  given  opppotunities  for  contraband,  it  was  agreed 
by  a  subsequent  convention,  signed  at  Madrid  in  1750,  between  these 
two  courts,  that  England  should  entirely  renounce  that  contract  in  con- 
sideration of  a  sum  of  .£100,000  sterling,  which  Spain  promised  to  pay 
the  English  company  engaged  in  that  trade. 

5  On  the  death  of  Joseph  I.  in  1777,  and  the  accession  of  his  daughter 
Mary,  the  grandees  of  Portugal  avenged  themselves  for  the  indignities 
which  the  Marquis  de  Pombal  had  subjected  them  to. 

6  The  principal  actions  which  took  place  between  the  French  and  the 
Hanoverians,  with  their  allies,  were  those  of  Hastenbeck  in  1757 ; 
Crevelt,  1758  ;  Bergen  and  Minden,  1759  ;  Clostercamp,  1760  ;  Villing- 
hausen,  1761  ;  Grebenstein,  1762. 

7  The  battles  fought  by  the  King  of  Prussia  in  that  war  were  the  follow- 
ing :  that  of  Lowositz  in  1756 ;  Prague,  Kolin,  Jagerndoff,  Rosbach, 
Breslau  and  Iiissa,  1757  ;  Zorndorff  and  i?ocAA:ircAew,  1758;  Zullichau 


NOTES.  389 

and  Kunnersdorff,  or  Frankfort  on  the  Oder,  1759  ;  Liegnitz  and  Tor- 
gau,  1760 ;  Fryburg,  1762.  The  King  gained  them  ail  except  those 
marked  in  italics. 

8  New  differences  having  arisen  between  Spain  and  Portugal  in  Brazil, 
which  occasioned  hostilities,  a  treaty  of  peace,  concluded  March  24, 
1778,  put  an  end  to  these  differences,  and  finally  regulated  the  limits 
between  the  two  nations  in  America. 

9  This  prince  perished  at  the  siege  of  Seringapatam,  his  capital,  which 
the  English  took  in  1799. 

10  It  appears  by  the  overtures  which  the  Empress  of  Russia  made  to  the 
Kmg  of  Poland  in  1771,  1775,  that  she  was  averse  to  the  partition  of 
Poland,  which,  in  effect,  appeared  to  be  in  opposition  to  the  true  inte. 
rests  of  Russia. 

11  The  Austrian  division  ivas  estimated  at  about  1300  German  square 
miles,  with  700,000  inhabitants. 

12  These  countries  were  estimated  at  4157  square  miles,  with  3,050,000 
inhabitants. 

13  The  portion  of  the  King  of  Prussia  comprised  1061  square  miles,  with 
1,150,000  inhabitants.     It  contained  262  cities,  and  8274  villages. 

H  It  was  in  this  revolution  that  Counts  Struensee  and  Brandt  were  exe- 
cuted— the  former  being  prime  minister  of  Sweden.  For  the  lives  of 
these  two  persons,  see  Converts  from  Infidelity,  Vol.  II.,  by  the  trans- 
lator of  this  work. 

CHAPTER  IX. 

1  The  first  act  of  the  Confederation  's  dated  Oct.  4.  1776.  It  then  com. 
prehended  only  eleven  states.  South  Carolina  and  Maryland  were  not 
included  till  1781. 


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